UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

FORM 10-K

BROOKLINE BANCORP, INC.

Certain statements contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K that are not historical facts may constitute forward-looking statements within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, and are intended to be covered by the safe harbor provisions of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Forward-looking statements involve risks and uncertainties. These statements, which are based on certain assumptions and describe Brookline Bancorp, Inc.'s (the "Company's""Company’s") future plans, strategies and expectations, can generally be identified by the use of the words "may," "will," "should," "could," "would," "plan," "potential," "estimate," "project," "believe," "intend," "anticipate," "expect," "target" and similar expressions. These statements include, among others, statements regarding the Company's intent, belief or expectations with respect to economic conditions, trends affecting the Company's financial condition or results of operations, and the Company's exposure to market, liquidity, interest-rate and credit risk.

Forward-looking statements are based on the current assumptions underlying the statements and other information with respect to the beliefs, plans, objectives, goals, expectations, anticipations, estimates and intentions of management and the financial condition, results of operations, future performance and business are only expectations of future results. Although the Company believes that the expectations reflected in the Company’s forward-looking statements are reasonable, the Company’s actual results could differ materially from those projected in the forward-looking statements as a result of, among other important factors, the negative impacts and disruptions of the COVID-19 pandemic and measures taken to contain its spread on the Company’s employees, customers, business operations, credit quality, financial position, liquidity and results of operations; continued deterioration in employment levels; turbulence in the capital and debt markets; changes in interest rates; competitive pressures from other financial institutions; the effects of weakness in general economic conditions (including inflation and concerns about liquidity) on a national basis or in the local markets in which the Company operates; turbulence in the capital and debt markets; competitive pressures from other financial institutions; changes in consumer behavior due to changing political, business and economic conditions, including increased unemployment, or legislative or regulatory initiatives; changes in the value of securities and other assets in the Company’s investment portfolio; increases in loan and lease default and charge-off rates; the adequacy of allowances for loan and lease losses; decreases in deposit levels that necessitate increases in borrowing to fund loans and investments; operational risks including, but not limited to, cybersecurity incidents, fraud, natural disasters, and future pandemics; changes in regulation; reputational risks relating to the Company’s participation in the Paycheck Protection Program (the "PPP"), and other pandemic-related legislative and regulatory initiatives and programs; the possibility that future credit losses may be higher than currently expected;expected due to changes in economic assumptions and adverse economic developments; the risk that goodwill and intangibles recorded in the Company’s financial statements will become impaired; and changes in assumptions used in making such forward-looking statements; and the other risks and uncertainties detailed in Item 1A, "Risk Factors." Forward-looking statements speak only as of the date on which they are made. The Company does not undertake any obligation to update any forward-looking statement to reflect circumstances or events that occur after the date the forward-looking statements are made.

Item 1.    Business

General

Brookline Bancorp, Inc. (the "Company"), a Delaware corporation, is the holding company for Brookline Bank and its subsidiaries, Bank Rhode Island ("BankRI") and its subsidiaries, PCSB Bank and its subsidiaries, and Clarendon Private, LLC (“Clarendon Private”). Brookline Securities Corp.Corp, previously a subsidiary of Brookline Bancorp, Inc., was dissolved in November 2023.

BankRI, headquartered in Providence, Rhode Island, has fourthree direct subsidiaries, Acorn Insurance Agency, BRI Realty Corp., Macrolease Corporation ("Macrolease"), and BRI Investment Corp. and its wholly-owned subsidiary, BRI MSC Corp., and operates 2022 full-service banking offices in the greaterGreater Providence, Rhode Island, area. Macrolease Corporation, previously a subsidiary of BankRI, was merged into Eastern Funding LLC in the second quarter of 2022.

The Company, through Brookline Bank, BankRI and BankRIPCSB Bank (the "Banks"), offers a wide range of commercial, business and retail banking services, including a full complement of cash management products, on-line banking services, and consumer and residential loans and investment services, designed to meet the financial needs of small- to mid-sized businesses and individuals throughout centralCentral New England.England and the Lower Hudson Valley in New York. Specialty lending activities, including equipment financing, are focused in the New York and New Jersey metropolitan area, with services offered throughout the United States. As full-service financial institutions, the Banks and their subsidiaries focus on the continued

Banks and their subsidiaries focus on the continued addition of well-qualified customers, the deepening of long-term banking relationships through a full complement of products and excellent customer service, and strong risk management. Clarendon Private is a registered investment advisor with the Securities and Exchange Commission (the "SEC"). Through Clarendon Private, the Company offers a wide range of wealth management services to individuals, families, endowments and foundations to help these clients meet their long-term financial goals.

The Company's headquarters and executive management are located at 131 Clarendon Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02116, and its telephone number is 617-425-4600.

Overview of Results

The loan and lease portfolio grew $531.7 million,increased $2.0 billion, or 7.9%26.1%, to $7.3$9.6 billion at December 31, 20202023 from $6.7$7.6 billion at December 31, 2019. The Company's commercial loan portfolios, which are comprised of commercial real estate loans and commercial loans and leases, continued to exhibit growth.2022. The Company's commercial loan portfolios, which totaled $6.1$8.2 billion, or 83.9%84.7% of total loans and leases, as of December 31, 2020,2023, increased $590.8 million,$1.7 billion, or 10.7%27.2%, from $5.5$6.4 billion, or 81.7%84.0% of total loans and leases, as of December 31, 2019.2022, primarily driven by the acquisition of PCSB.

Total deposits increased $1.1$2.0 billion, or 18.5%31.1%, to $6.9$8.5 billion at December 31, 20202023 from $5.8$6.5 billion as of December 31, 2019.2022, primarily driven by the acquisition of PCSB. Core deposits, which include demand checking, NOW, money market and savings accounts, increased 26.7%15.3% to $4.8$6.1 billion as of December 31, 20202023 from $3.8$5.3 billion at December 31, 2019.2022. The Company's core deposits were 69.8%71.3% of total deposits at December 31, 2020, an increase2023, a decrease from 65.3%81.0% at December 31, 2019.2022.

The allowance for loan and lease losses increased $53.3$19.0 million, or 87.3%19.3%, to $114.4$117.5 million as of December 31, 20202023 from $61.1$98.5 million as of December 31, 2019.2022. The ratio of the allowance for loan and lease losses to total loans and leases was 1.57%1.22% as of December 31, 20202023 compared to 0.91%1.29% as of December 31, 2019.2022. Nonperforming assets as of December 31, 20202023 were $45.0$45.3 million, up from $22.1$15.3 million at the end of 2019.2022. Nonperforming assets were 0.50%0.40% and 0.28%0.17% of total assets as of December 31, 20202023 and December 31, 2019,2022, respectively. The Company's credit quality compares favorably to its peers, and remains a top priority within the Company.

Net interest income increased $6.9$39.9 million, or 2.7%13.3%, to $260.2$339.7 million in 20202023 compared to $253.3$299.8 million in 2019.2022. Net interest margin decreased 3443 basis points to 3.17%3.24% in 20202023 from 3.51%3.67% in 2019.2022. Net income for 20202023 decreased $40.1$34.7 million, or 45.7%31.7%, to $47.6$75.0 million from $87.7$109.7 million for 2019.2022. Basic and fully diluted earnings per common share ("EPS") decreased to $0.60$0.85 for 20202023 from $1.10$1.42 for 2019.2022. See Item 7. “Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.”

Competition

The Company provides banking services in the greaterGreater Boston, Massachusetts, and Providence, Rhode Island, and New York, New York, metropolitan marketplaces, each of which is dominated by several large national banking institutions. The Company faces considerable competition from banking and non-banking organizations, including traditional banks, digitalonline banks, financial technology companies, wealth management companies and others, in its market area for all aspects of banking and related service activities. Competitive factors considered for loan generation include product offerings, interest rates, terms offered, services provided and geographic locations. Competitive factors considered in attracting and retaining deposits include product offerings and rate of return, convenient branch locations and automated teller machines and online access to accounts.

Market Area and Credit Risk Concentration

As of December 31, 2020,2023, the Company, through its Banks, operated 5065 full-service banking offices in greaterGreater Boston, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and greater Providence, Rhode Island.New York. The Banks' deposits are gathered from the general public, primarily in the communities in which the banking offices are located. The deposit market in Massachusetts and Rhode Island is highly concentrated in several banks. Based on June 30, 20202023, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ("FDIC") statistics, the five largest banks in Massachusetts have an aggregate market share of approximately 67%68%, and the three largest banks in Rhode Island have an aggregate deposit market share of approximately 72%68%, and the three largest banks in New York have an aggregate deposit market share of approximately 51%. The Banks' lending activities are concentrated primarily in the greaterGreater Boston, Massachusetts, and Providence, Rhode Island, metropolitan areas, eastern Massachusetts, southern New Hampshire, and other Rhode Island areas.areas and the Lower Hudson Valley in New York. In addition, the Company, through its subsidiaries of Brookline Bank and BankRI,Eastern Funding, conducts equipment financing activities in the greater New York and New Jersey metropolitan area and elsewhere in the United States.

the amount and types of construction lending. As of December 31, 2020,2023, the largest commercial real estate relationship in the Company’sCompany's portfolio was $56.1$61.5 million.

Because commercial loans are typically made on the basis of the borrower's ability to repay from the cash flow of the business, the availability of funds for the repayment of commercial and industrial loans may be significantly dependent on the success of the business itself. Further, the collateral securing the loans may be difficult to value, may fluctuate in value based on the success of the business and may deteriorate over time. For this reason, these loans and leases involve greater credit risk. Loans and leases originated by Eastern Funding generally earn higher yields because the borrowers are typically small businesses with limited capital such as laundries, dry cleaners, fitness centers convenience stores and tow truck operators. The Macrolease equipment financing portfolio is comprised of small- to medium-sized businesses such as fitness centers, restaurants and other commercial equipment. The Banks manage the credit risk inherent in commercial lending by requiring strong debt service coverage ratios; limiting loan-to-value ratios; securing personal guarantees from borrowers; and limiting industry concentrations, franchisee concentrations and the duration of loan maturities. As of December 31, 2020,2023, the largest commercial relationship in the Company’sCompany's portfolio was $58.4$65.9 million.

Economic Conditions and Governmental Policies

Repayment of multi-family and commercial real estate loans are generally dependent on the properties generating sufficient income to cover operating expenses and debt service. Repayment of commercial loans and equipment financing loans and leases generally are dependent on the demand for the borrowers' products or services and the ability of borrowers to compete and operate on a profitable basis. Repayment of residential mortgage loans and home equity loans and indirect automobile loans generally are dependent on the financial well-being of the borrowers and their capacity to service their debt levels. The asset quality of the Company's loan and lease portfolio, therefore, is greatly affected by the economy. Should there be any setback in the economy or increase in the unemployment rates in the Boston, Massachusetts,Providence, or Providence, Rhode Island,New York, metropolitan areas, the resulting negative consequences could affect occupancy rates in the properties financed by the Company and cause certain individual and business borrowers to be unable to service their debt obligations.

Personnel and Human Capital Resources

As of December 31, 2020,2023, the Company had 780974 full-time employees and 3344 part-time employees. The employees are not represented by a collective bargaining unit and the Company considers its relationship with its employees to be good.

We encourage and support the growth and development of our employees. Continual learning and career development is advanced through ongoing performance and development conversations with employees, internally developed training programs, customized corporate training engagements and educational reimbursement programs.

The safety, health and wellness of our employees is a top priority. The COVID-19 pandemic presented a unique challenge with regard to maintaining employee safety while continuing successful operations. Through teamwork and the adaptability of our management and staff, we were able to transition, over a short period of time, 45% of our employees to effectively working from remote locations and ensure a safely-distanced working environment for employees performing customer facing activities

We believe our commitment to living out our core values, actively prioritizing concern for our employees’employees' well-being, supporting our employees’employees' career goals, offering competitive wages and providing valuable fringe benefits aids in retention of our top-performing employees.

Access to Available Information

As a public company, Brookline Bancorp, Inc. is subject to the informational requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the “Exchange Act”), and in accordance therewith, files reports, proxy and information statements and other information with the Securities and Exchange Commission (the “SEC”).SEC. The Company makes available on or through its internet website, www.brooklinebancorp.com, without charge, its annual reports on Form 10-K, proxy statements, quarterly reports on Form 10-Q, current reports on Form 8-K and amendments to those reports filed or furnished pursuant to Section 13(a) or 15(d) of the Exchange Act, as soon as reasonably practicable after such reports are electronically filed with, or furnished to, the SEC. The Company’sCompany's reports filed with, or furnished to, the SEC are also available at the SEC’sSEC's website at www.sec.gov. Press releases are also maintained on the Company’sCompany's website. Additional information for Brookline Bank, BankRI, PCSB Bank, Eastern Funding, and BankRIClarendon Private can be found at www.brooklinebank.com, www.bankri.com, www.pcsb.com, www.easternfunding.com, and www.bankri.com,www.clarendonprivate.com, respectively. Information on the Company’sCompany's and any subsidiary's website is not incorporated by reference into this document and should not be considered part of this Report.

Supervision and Regulation

The following discussion addresses elements of the regulatory framework applicable to bank holding companies and their subsidiaries. This regulatory framework is intended primarily for the protection of the safety and soundness of depository institutions, the federal deposit insurance system, and depositors, rather than for the protection of shareholders of a bank holding company such as the Company.

As a bank holding company, the Company is subject to regulation, supervision and examination by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System ( the "FRB") under the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956, as amended (the “BHCA”), and by the Massachusetts Commissioner of Banks (the "Commissioner"“Commissioner”) under Massachusetts General Laws Chapter 167A. The FRB is also the primary federal regulator of the Banks. In addition, Brookline Bank is subject to regulation, supervision and examination by the Massachusetts Division of Banks ("MDOB"(“MDOB”), and BankRI is subject to regulation, supervision and examination by the Banking Division of the Rhode Island Department of Business Regulation (the “RIBD”), and PCSB Bank is subject to regulation, supervision and examination by the New York State Department of Financial Services (“NYDFS”).

The following is a summary of certain aspects of various statutes and regulations applicable to the Company and its subsidiaries. This summary is not a comprehensive analysis of all applicable law, and is qualified by reference to the full text of the statutes and regulations referenced below.

Regulation of the Company

The Company is subject to regulation, supervision and examination by the FRB, which has the authority, among other things, to order bank holding companies to cease and desist from unsafe or unsound banking practices; to assess civil money penalties; and to order termination of non-banking activities or termination of ownership and control of a non-banking subsidiary by a bank holding company.

Source of Strength

Under the BHCA, as amended by the Dodd-Frank Act, the Company is required to serve as a source of financial strength for the Banks in the event of the financial distress of the Banks. This provision of the Dodd-Frank Act codifies the longstanding policy of the FRB. This support may be required at times when the bank holding company may not have the resources to provide the additional financial support required by its subsidiary banks. In the event of a bank holding company’scompany's bankruptcy, any commitment by the bank holding company to a federal bank regulatory agency to maintain the capital of a bank subsidiary will be assumed by the bankruptcy trustee and entitled to priority of payment.

Acquisitions and Activities

The BHCA prohibits a bank holding company, without prior approval of the FRB, from acquiring all or substantially all the assets of a bank, acquiring control of a bank, merging or consolidating with another bank holding company, or acquiring direct or indirect ownership or control of any voting shares of another bank or bank holding company if, after such acquisition, the acquiring bank holding company would control more than 5% of any class of the voting shares of such other bank or bank holding company. Further, as a Massachusetts bank holding company, the Company generally must obtain the prior approval of the Massachusetts Board of Bank Incorporation to acquire ownership or control of more than 5% of any voting stock in any other banking institution, acquire substantially all the assets of a bank, or merge with another bank holding company. However, there is an exemption from this approval requirement in certain cases in which the banking institution to be acquired,

simultaneously with the acquisition, merges with a banking institution subsidiary of the Company in a transaction approved by the Commissioner.

The BHCA also generally prohibits a bank holding company from engaging directly or indirectly in activities other than those of banking, managing or controlling banks or furnishing services to its subsidiary banks. However, among other permitted activities, a bank holding company may engage in and may own shares of companies engaged in certain activities that the FRB has determined to be so closely related to banking or managing and controlling banks as to be a proper incident thereto, subject to certain notification requirements.

Limitations on Acquisitions of Company Common Stock

The Change in Bank Control Act prohibits a person or group of persons from acquiring “control” of a bank holding company unless the FRB has been notified and has not objected to the transaction. Under rebuttable presumptions of control established by the FRB, the acquisition of control of voting securities of a bank holding company constitutes an acquisition of control under the Change in Bank Control Act, requiring prior notice to the FRB, if, immediately after the transaction, the acquiring person (or persons acting in concert) will own, control, or hold with power to vote 10% or more of any class of voting securities of the bank holding company, and if either (i) the bank holding company has registered securities under Section 12 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, or (ii) no other person will own, control, or hold the power to vote a greater percentage of that class of voting securities immediately after the transaction.

In addition, the BHCA prohibits any company from acquiring control of a bank or bank holding company without first having obtained the approval of the FRB. Among other circumstances, under the BHCA, a company has control of a bank or bank holding company if the company owns, controls or holds with power to vote 25% or more of a class of voting securities of the bank or bank holding company; controls in any manner the election of a majority of directors or trustees of the bank or bank holding company; or the FRB has determined, after notice and opportunity for hearing, that the company has the power to exercise a controlling influence over the management or policies of the bank or bank holding company. The FRB has established presumptions of control under which the acquisition of control of 5% or more of a class of voting securities of a bank holding company, together with other factors enumerated by the FRB, could constitute the acquisition of control of a bank holding company for purposes of the BHCA.

Regulation of the Banks

Brookline Bank is subject to regulation, supervision and examination by the MDOB and the FRB. BankRI is subject to regulation, supervision and examination by the RIBD and the FRB. PCSB Bank is subject to regulation, supervision and examination by the NYDFS and the FRB. The enforcement powers available to federal and state banking regulators include, among other things, the ability to issue cease and desist or removal orders to terminate insurance of deposits; to assess civil money penalties; to issue directives to increase capital; to place the bank into receivership; and to initiate injunctive actions against banking organizations and institution-affiliated parties.

Deposit Insurance

Deposit obligations of the Banks are insured by the FDIC’sFDIC's Deposit Insurance Fund up to $250,000 per separately insured depositor for deposits held in the same right and capacity.

The FDIC has the authority to adjust deposit insurance assessment rates at any time. The FDIC is also required to recover losses to its Deposit Insurance Fund arising from the use of the systemic risk exception invoked on March 12, 2023. On November 16, 2023, the FDIC approved a final rule to implement a special assessment to recover such losses. Under the final rule, each insured depository institution’s assessment base for the special assessment is generally equal to estimated uninsured deposits as reported in the Call Report or FFIEC 002 as of December 31, 2022, after applying a $5 billion deduction.

In addition, under the FDIA,Federal Deposit Insurance Act (the “FDIA”), the FDIC may terminate deposit insurance, among other circumstances, upon a finding that the institution has engaged in unsafe and unsound practices; is in an unsafe or unsound condition to continue operations; or has violated any applicable law, regulation, rule, order or condition imposed by the FDIC.

Similar to the source of strength doctrine discussed above in “Regulation of the Company-Source of Strength,” underUnder the cross-guarantee provisions of the FDIA, the FDIC can hold any FDIC-insured depository institution liable for any loss suffered or anticipated by the FDIC in connection with (i) the “default” of a commonly controlled FDIC-insured depository institution; or (ii) any assistance provided by the FDIC to a commonly controlled FDIC-insured depository institution “in danger of default.”

Acquisitions and Branching

The Banks must seek prior approval from the FRB to acquire another bank or establish a new branch office. Brookline Bank must also seek prior approval from the MDOB to acquire another bank or establish a new branch office, and BankRI must also seek prior approval from the RIBD to acquire another bank or establish a new branch office, and PCSB Bank must also seek prior approval from the NYDFS to acquire another bank or establish a new branch office. Well capitalized and well managed banks may acquire other banks in any state, subject to certain deposit concentration limits and other conditions, pursuant to the Riegle-Neal Interstate Banking and Branching Efficiency Act of 1994, as amended by the Dodd-Frank Act. In addition, the Dodd-Frank Act authorizes a state-chartered bank to establish new branches on an interstate basis to the same extent a bank chartered by the host state may establish branches.

Activities and Investments of Insured State-Chartered Banks

The FDIA generally limits the types of equity investments that FDIC-insured state-chartered member banks, such as the Banks, may make and the kinds of activities in which such banks may engage, as a principal, to those that are permissible for national banks. Further, the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999 (the “GLBA”) permits state banks, to the extent permitted under state law, to engage through “financial subsidiaries” in certain activities which are permissible for subsidiaries of a financial holding company. In order to form a financial subsidiary, a state-chartered bank must be well capitalized, and must comply with certain capital deduction, risk management and affiliate transaction rules, among other requirements. In addition, the Federal Reserve Act provides that state member banks are subject to the same restrictions with respect to purchasing, selling, underwriting, and holding of investment securities as national banks.

Brokered Deposits

The FDIA and federal regulations generally limit the ability of an insured depository institution to accept, renew or roll over any brokered deposit unless the institution’sinstitution's capital category is “well capitalized” or, with regulatory approval, “adequately capitalized.” DepositoryCertain depository institutions that have brokered deposits in excess of 10% of total assets will be subject to increased FDIC deposit insurance premium assessments. Additionally, depository institutions considered “adequately capitalized” that need regulatory approval to accept, renew or roll over any brokered deposits are subject to additional restrictions on the interest rate they may pay on deposits. As of December 31, 2020, neither2023, none of the Banks had brokered deposits in excess of 10% of total assets.

Section 202 of the Economic Growth, Regulatory Relief, and Consumer Protection Act (the "Economic Growth Act"), which was enacted in 2018, amendsamended the FDIA to exempt a capped amount of reciprocal deposits from treatment as brokered deposits for certain insured depository institutions.

The Community Reinvestment Act

The Community Reinvestment Act (“CRA”) requires the FRB to evaluate each of the Banks with regard to their performance in helping to meet the credit needs of the communities each of the Banks serve, including low and moderate-income neighborhoods, consistent with safe and sound banking operations, and to take this record into consideration when evaluating certain applications. The FRB’sFRB's CRA regulations are generally based upon objective criteria of the performance of institutions under three key assessment tests: (i) a lending test, to evaluate the institution’sinstitution's record of making loans in its service areas; (ii) an investment test, to evaluate the institution’sinstitution's record of investing in community development projects, affordable housing, and programs benefiting low- or moderate-income individuals and businesses; and (iii) a service test, to evaluate the institution’sinstitution's delivery of services through its branches, ATMs, and other offices. Failure of an institution to receive at least a “satisfactory” rating could inhibit the Banks or the Company from undertaking certain activities, including engaging in activities permitted as a financial holding company under GLBA and acquisitions of other financial institutions. Each Bank has achieved a rating of “satisfactory” on its most recent CRA examination. Both Massachusetts, and Rhode Island and New York have adopted specific community reinvestment requirements which are substantially similar to those of the FRB. On October 23, 2023, the FDIC approved changes to its CRA regulations, maintaining the existing CRA ratings but modifying the evaluation framework to replace the existing tests generally applicable to banks with at least $2 billion in assets (the lending, investment, and service tests) with four new tests and associated performance metrics. The new CRA regulations will become effective on January 1, 2026.

Lending Restrictions

Federal law limits a bank’sbank's authority to extend credit to directors and executive officers of the bank or its affiliates and persons or companies that own, control or have power to vote more than 10% of any class of securities of a bank or an affiliate of a bank, as well as to entities controlled by such persons. Among other things, extensions of credit to insiders are required to be made on terms that are substantially the same as, and follow credit underwriting procedures that are not less stringent than, those prevailing for comparable transactions with unaffiliated persons. Also, the terms of such extensions of credit may not involve more than the normal risk of repayment or present other unfavorable features and may not exceed certain limitations on the amount of credit extended to such persons, individually and in the aggregate, which limits are based, in part, on the amount of the bank’sbank's capital.

Capital Adequacy and Safety and Soundness

Regulatory Capital Requirements

The FRB has issued risk-based and leverage capital rules applicable to U.S. banking organizations such as the Company and the Banks. These rules are intended to reflect the relationship between the banking organization’sorganization's capital and the degree of risk associated with its operations based on transactions recorded on-balance sheet as well as off-balance sheet items. The FRB may from time to time require that a banking organization maintain capital above the minimum levels discussed below, due to the banking organization’sorganization's financial condition or actual or anticipated growth.

The capital adequacy rules define qualifying capital instruments and specify minimum amounts of capital as a percentage of assets that banking organizations are required to maintain. Common equity Tier 1 capital generally includes common stock and related surplus, retained earnings and, in certain cases and subject to certain limitations, minority interest in consolidated subsidiaries, less goodwill, other non-qualifying intangible assets and certain other deductions. Tier 1 capital for banks and bank holding companies generally consists of the sum of common equity Tier 1 elements, non-cumulative perpetual preferred stock, and related surplus in certain cases and subject to limitations, minority interests in consolidated subsidiaries that do not qualify as common equity Tier 1 capital, less certain deductions. Tier 2 capital generally consists of hybrid capital instruments, perpetual debt and mandatory convertible debt securities, cumulative perpetual preferred stock, term subordinated debt and intermediate-term preferred stock, and, subject to limitations, allowances for loan losses. The sum of Tier 1 and Tier 2 capital less certain required deductions represents qualifying total risk-based capital. Prior to the effectiveness of certain provisions of the Dodd-Frank Act, bank holding companies were permitted to include trust preferred securities and cumulative perpetual preferred stock in Tier 1 capital, subject to limitations. However, the FRB’sFRB's capital rule applicable to bank holding companies permanently grandfathers nonqualifying capital instruments, including trust preferred securities, issued before May 19, 2010 by depository institution holding companies with less than $15 billion in total assets as of December 31, 2009, subject to a limit of 25% of Tier 1 capital. In addition, under rules that became effective January 1, 2015, accumulated other comprehensive income (positive or negative) must be reflected in Tier 1 capital; however, the Company was permitted to make a one-time, permanent election to continue to exclude accumulated other comprehensive income from capital. The Company has made this election.

Under the capital rules, risk-based capital ratios are calculated by dividing common equity Tier 1, Tier 1, and total risk capital, respectively, by risk-weighted assets. Assets and off-balance sheet credit equivalents are assigned to one of several categories of risk-weights, based primarily on relative risk. Under the FRB's rules, the Company and the Banks are each required to maintain a minimum common equity Tier 1 capital ratio requirement of 4.5%, a minimum Tier 1 capital ratio requirement of 6.0%, a minimum total capital requirement of 8.0% and a minimum leverage ratio requirement of 4.0%. Additionally, these rules require an institution to establish a capital conservation buffer of common equity Tier 1 capital in an amount above the minimum risk-based capital requirements for "adequately capitalized" institutions of more than 2.5% of total risk weighted assets, or face restrictions on the ability to pay dividends, pay discretionary bonuses, and to engaged in share repurchases.

A bank holding company, such as the Company, is considered "well capitalized" if the bank holding company (i) has a total risk based capital ratio of at least 10.0%, (ii) has a Tier 1 risk-based capital ratio of at least 6.0%, and (iii) is not subject to any written agreement order, capital directive or prompt corrective action directive to meet and maintain a specific capital level for any capital measure. In addition, under the FRB's prompt corrective action rules, a state member bank is considered “well capitalized” if it (i) has a total risk-based capital ratio of 10.0% or greater; (ii) a Tier 1 risk-based capital ratio of 8.0% or greater; (iii) a common Tier 1 equity ratio of at least 6.5% or greater, (iv) a leverage capital ratio of 5.0% or greater; and (v) is not subject to any written agreement, order, capital directive, or prompt corrective action directive to meet and maintain a specific capital level for any capital measure. The FRB also considers: (i) concentrations of credit risk; (ii) interest rate risk; and (iii) risks from non-traditional activities, as well as an institution’sinstitution's ability to manage those risks. When determining the adequacy of an institution’sinstitution's capital, this evaluation is a part of the institution’sinstitution's regular safety and soundness examination. Each of the Banks is currently considered well-capitalized under all regulatory definitions.

Generally, a bank, upon receiving notice that it is not adequately capitalized (i.e., that it is “undercapitalized”), becomes subject to the prompt corrective action provisions of Section 38 of FDIA that, for example, (i) restrict payment of capital distributions and management fees, (ii) require that its federal bank regulator monitor the condition of the institution and its efforts to restore its capital, (iii) require submission of a capital restoration plan, (iv) restrict the growth of the institution’sinstitution's assets, and (v) require prior regulatory approval of certain expansion proposals. A bank that is required to submit a capital restoration plan must concurrently submit a performance guarantee by each company that controls the bank. A bank that is “critically undercapitalized” (i.e., has a ratio of tangible equity to total assets that is equal to or less than 2.0%) will be subject to further restrictions, and generally will be placed in conservatorship or receivership within 90 days.

Safety and Soundness Standards

Guidelines adopted by the federal bank regulatory agencies pursuant to the FDIA establish general standards relating to internal controls and information systems, internal audit systems, loan documentation, credit underwriting, interest rate exposure, asset growth, asset quality, earnings and compensation, fees and benefits. In general, these guidelines require, among other things, appropriate systems and practices to identify and manage the risk and exposures specified in the guidelines. The guidelines prohibit excessive compensation as an unsafe and unsound practice and describe compensation as excessive when the amounts paid are unreasonable or disproportionate to the services performed by an executive officer, employee, director or principal stockholder. In addition, the federal banking agencies adopted regulations that authorize, but do not require, an agency to order an institution that has been given notice by an agency that it is not satisfying any of such safety and soundness standards to submit a compliance plan. If, after being so notified, an institution fails to submit an acceptable compliance plan or fails in any material respect to implement an acceptable compliance plan, the agency must issue an order directing action to correct the deficiency and may issue an order restricting asset growth, requiring an institution to increase its ratio of tangible equity to assets or directing other actions of the types to which an undercapitalized institution is subject under the “prompt corrective action” provisions of FDIA. See “- Regulatory Capital Requirements” above. If an institution fails to comply with such an order, the agency may seek to enforce such order in judicial proceedings and to impose civil money penalties.

Dividend Restrictions

The Company is a legal entity separate and distinct from the Banks. The revenue of the Company (on a parent company only basis) is derived primarily from dividends paid to it by the Banks. The right of the Company, and consequently the right of shareholders of the Company, to participate in any distribution of the assets or earnings of the Banks through the payment of such dividends or otherwise is subject to the prior claims of creditors of the Banks (including depositors), except to the extent that certain claims of the Company in a creditor capacity may be recognized.

Restrictions on Bank Holding Company Dividends

The FRB has authority to prohibit bank holding companies from paying dividends if such payment is deemed to be an unsafe or unsound practice. The FRB has indicated generally that it may be an unsafe or unsound practice for bank holding companies to pay dividends unless the bank holding company’scompany's net income for the prior year is sufficient to fund the dividends and the expected rate of earnings retention is consistent with the organization’sorganization's capital needs, asset quality and overall financial condition. Further, under the FRBsFRB's capital rules, the Company's ability to pay dividends will be restricted if it does not maintain the required capital conservation buffer. See “Capital Adequacy and Safety and Soundness-Regulatory Capital Requirements” above.

Restrictions on Bank Dividends

The FRB has the authority to use its enforcement powers to prohibit a bank from paying dividends if, in its opinion, the payment of dividends would constitute an unsafe or unsound practice. Federal law also prohibits the payment of dividends by a bank that will result in the bank failing to meet its applicable capital requirements on a pro forma basis. In addition, a state member bank may not declare or pay a dividend: (i) if the total of all dividends declared during the calendar year, including the proposed dividend, exceeds the sum of the bank's net income during the current calendar year and the retained net income of the prior two calendar years; or (ii) that would exceed its undivided profits; in either case, unless the dividend has been approved by the FRB. Payment of dividends by a bank is also restricted pursuant to various state regulatory limitations.

Certain Transactions by Bank Holding Companies with their Affiliates

with, its non-depository institution affiliates if the aggregate amount of covered transactions outstanding involving the bank, plus the proposed transaction, exceeds the following limits: (i) in the case of any one such affiliate, the aggregate amount of covered transactions of the insured depository institution and its subsidiaries cannot exceed 10% of the capital stock and surplus of the insured depository institution; and (ii) in the case of all affiliates, the aggregate amount of covered transactions of the insured depository institution and its subsidiaries cannot exceed 20% of the capital stock and surplus of the insured depository institution. For this purpose, “covered transactions” are defined by statute to include a loan or extension of credit to an affiliate, a purchase of or investment in securities issued by an affiliate, a purchase of assets from an affiliate unless exempted by the FRB, the acceptance of securities issued by an affiliate as collateral for a loan or extension of credit to any person or company, the issuance of a guarantee, acceptance or letter of credit on behalf of an affiliate, securities borrowing or lending transactions with an affiliate that creates a credit exposure to such affiliate, or a derivatives transaction with an affiliate that creates a credit exposure to such affiliate. Covered transactions are also subject to certain collateral security requirements. Covered transactions as well as other types of transactions between a bank and a bank holding company must be conducted under terms and conditions, including credit standards, that are at least as favorable to the bank as prevailingmarket terms.If a banking organization elects to use the community bank leverage ratio framework described in “Capital Adequacy and Safety and Soundness - Regulatory Capital Requirements” above, the banking organization would be required to measure the amount of covered transactions as a percentage of Tier 1 capital, subject to certain adjustments. Moreover, Section 106 of the Bank Holding Company Act Amendment of 1970 provides that, to further competition, a bank holding company and its subsidiaries are prohibited from engaging in certain tying arrangements in connection with any extension of credit, lease or sale of property of any kind, or the furnishing of any service. As of and for the year ending December 31, 2020,2023, there were no such transactions.

Consumer Protection Regulation

The Company and the Banks are subject to a number of federal and state laws designed to protect consumers and prohibit unfair or deceptive business practices. These laws include the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, Fair Housing Act, Home Ownership Protection Act, Fair Credit Reporting Act, as amended by the Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act of 2003 (the “FACT Act”), GLBA, Truth in Lending Act ("TILA"), the CRA, the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act, Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act, National Flood Insurance Act and various state law counterparts. These laws and regulations mandate certain disclosure requirements and regulate the manner in which financial institutions must interact with customers when taking deposits, making loans, collecting loans and providing other services. Further, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau ("CFPB") also has a broad mandate to prohibit unfair, deceptive or abusive acts and practices and is specifically empowered to require certain disclosures to consumers and draft model disclosure forms. Failure to comply with consumer protection laws and regulations can subject financial institutions to enforcement actions, fines and other penalties. The FRB examines the Banks for compliance with CFPB rules and enforces CFPB rules with respect to the Banks.

Privacy and Customer Information Security

The GLBA requires financial institutions to implement policies and procedures regarding the disclosure of nonpublic personal information about consumers to nonaffiliated third parties. In general, the Banks must provide their customers with an annual disclosure that explains their policies and procedures regarding the disclosure of such nonpublic personal information and, except as otherwise required or permitted by law, the Banks are prohibited from disclosing such information except as provided in such policies and procedures. If the financial institution only discloses information under exceptions from the GLBA that do not require an opt out to be provided and if there has been no change in the financial institutions privacy policies and procedures since its most recent disclosures provide to customers, an annual disclosure is not required to be provided by the financial institution. The GLBA also requires that the Banks develop, implement and maintain a comprehensive written information security program designed to ensure the security and confidentiality of customer information (as defined under GLBA), to protect against anticipated threats or hazards to the security or integrity of such information and to protect against unauthorized access to or use of such information that could result in substantial harm or inconvenience to any customer. The Banks are also required to send a notice to customers whose “sensitive information” has been compromised if unauthorized use of this information is “reasonably possible.” Most of the states, including the states where the Banks operate, have enacted legislation concerning breaches of data security and the duties of the Banks in response to a data breach. Congress continues to consider federal legislation that would require consumer notice of data security breaches. Pursuant to the FACT Act, the Banks must also develop and implement a written identity theft prevention program to detect, prevent, and mitigate identity theft in connection with the opening of certain accounts or certain existing accounts. Additionally, the FACT Act amendsamended the Fair Credit Reporting Act to generally prohibit a person from using information received from an affiliate to make a solicitation for marketing purposes to a consumer, unless the consumer is given notice and a reasonable opportunity and method to opt out of the making of such solicitations.

Anti-Money Laundering

The Bank Secrecy Act

Under the Bank Secrecy Act (“BSA”), a financial institution is required to have systems in place to detect certain transactions, based on the size and nature of the transaction. Financial institutions are generally required to report to the United States Treasury any cash transactions involving at least $10,000. In addition, financial institutions are required to file suspicious activity reports for any transaction or series of transactions that involve more than $5,000 and which the financial institution knows, suspects or has reason to suspect involves illegal funds, is designed to evade the requirements of the BSA or has no lawful purpose. The Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001 (the “USA PATRIOT Act”), which amended the BSA, is designed to deny terrorists and others the ability to obtain anonymous access to the U.S. financial system. The USA PATRIOT Act, has significant implications for financial institutions and businesses of other types involved in the transfer of money. The USA PATRIOT Act, together with the implementing regulations of various federal regulatory agencies, has caused financial institutions, such as the Banks, to adopt and implement additional policies or amend existing policies and procedures with respect to, among other things, anti-money laundering compliance, suspicious activity, currency transaction reporting, customer identity verification and customer risk analysis. In evaluating an application to acquire a bank or to merge banks or effect a purchase of assets and assumption of deposits and other liabilities, the applicable federal banking regulator must consider the anti-money laundering compliance record of both the applicant and the target. In addition, under the USA PATRIOT Act, financial institutions are required to take steps to monitor their correspondent banking and private banking relationships as well as, if applicable, their relationships with “shell banks.”

The U.S. has imposed economic sanctions that affect transactions with designated foreign countries, nationals and others. These sanctions, which are administered by the U.S. Treasury’sTreasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control (“OFAC”), take many different forms. Generally, however, they contain one or more of the following elements: (i) restrictions on trade with or investment in a sanctioned country, including prohibitions against direct or indirect imports from and exports to a sanctioned country and prohibitions on “U.S. persons” engaging in financial or other transactions relating to a sanctioned country or with certain designated persons and entities; (ii) a blocking of assets in which the government or specially designated nationals of the sanctioned country have an interest, by prohibiting transfers of property subject to U.S. jurisdiction (including property in the possession or control of U.S. persons); and (iii) restrictions on transactions with or involving certain persons or entities. Blocked assets (for example, property and bank deposits) cannot be paid out, withdrawn, set off or transferred in any manner without a license from OFAC. Failure to comply with these sanctions could have serious legal and reputational consequences for the Company. As of December 31, 2020,2023, the Company did not have any transactions with sanctioned countries, nationals, and others.

and charge-offs, but also necessitate further increases to our allowances for loan losses. A decrease in interest rates may trigger loan prepayments, which may serve to reduce net interest income if we are unable to lend those funds to other borrowers or invest the funds at the same or higher interest rates.

We operate in a highly competitive environment that includes financial and non-financial services firms, including traditional banks, online banks, financial technology companies, wealth management companies and others. These companies compete on the basis of, among other factors, size, quality and type of products and services offered, price, technology and reputation. Emerging technologies have the potential to intensify competition and accelerate disruption in the financial services industry. In recent years, non-financial services firms, such as financial technology companies, have begun to offer services traditionally provided by financial institutions. These firms attempt to use technology and mobile platforms to enhance the ability of companies and individuals to borrow money, save and invest. Our ability to compete successfully depends on a number of factors, including our ability to develop and execute strategic plans and initiatives; to develop competitive products and technologies; and to attract, retain and develop a highly skilled employee workforce. If we are not able to compete successfully, we could be placed at a competitive disadvantage, which could result in the loss of customers and market share, and our business, results of operations and financial condition could suffer.

relies on its loan officers and credit quality reviews, its experience and its evaluation of economic conditions, among other factors, in determining the amount of provision required for the allowance for credit losses. Provisions to this allowance result in an expense for the period. If, as a result of general economic conditions, previously incorrect assumptions, or an increase in defaulted loans or leases, we determine that additional increases in the allowance for credit losses are necessary, additional expenses may be incurred.

liquidated or is liquidated at prices not sufficient to recover the full amount of the financial instrument exposure due to us. There is no assurance that any such losses would not materially and adversely affect our results of operations.

None.

Brookline Bank conducts its business from 3029 banking offices, 6six of which are owned, 2322 of which are leased, and 1one of which is subleased. Brookline Bank's main banking office is leased and located in Brookline, Massachusetts. Brookline Bank also has 2two additional lending offices and 2one remote ATM locations,location, all of which are leased. Eastern Funding conducts its business from leased premises in New York City, New York, in Melville, New York, and in Melville,Plainview, New York.

BankRI conducts its business from 2022 banking offices, 6six of which are owned and 1416 of which are leased. BankRI's main banking office is leased and located in Providence, Rhode Island. BankRI also has 2two remote ATM locations, all of which are leased. Macrolease

PCSB Bank conducts its business from 14 banking offices, four of which are owned and 10 of which are leased. PCSB bank's main banking office is leased premisesand located in Plainview,Yorktown Heights, New York.

Refer to Note 13, "Commitments and Contingencies," to the consolidated financial statements for information regarding the Company's lease commitments as of December 31, 2020.2023.

During the fiscal year ended December 31, 2020,2023, the Company was not involved in any legal proceedings other than routine legal proceedings occurring in the ordinary course of business. Management believes that those routine legal proceedings involve, in the aggregate, amounts that are immaterial to the Company's financial condition and results of operations.

Not applicable.

The following graph compares total shareholder return on the Company's common stock over the last five years with the S&P 500 Index, the Russell 2000 Index and the SNL Index of Banks with assets between $5 billion and $10 billion.KBW Regional Banking Index. Index values are as of December 31 of each of the indicated years.

The graph assumes $100 invested on December 31, 20152018 in each of the Company's common stock, the S&P 500 Index, the Russell 2000 Index and the SNL Index of Banks with assets between $5 billion and $10 billion.KBW Regional Banking Index. The graph also assumes reinvestment of all dividends.

The Company, a Delaware corporation, operates as a multi-bank holding company for Brookline Bank and its subsidiaries; BankRIBank Rhode Island and its subsidiaries ("BankRI"); PCSB Bank and its subsidiaries; and Clarendon Private, LLC. Brookline Securities Corp.Corp, previously a subsidiary of Brookline Bancorp, Inc., was dissolved in November 2023.

As a commercially-focused financial institution with 5065 full-service banking offices throughout greaterGreater Boston, the north shore of MassachusettsRhode Island and Rhode Island,New York, the Company, through Brookline Bank, BankRI and PCSB Bank (collectively referred to as the Banks,"Banks') offers a wide range of commercial, business and retail banking services, including a full complement of cash management products, foreign exchange services, on-line and mobile banking services, consumer and residential loans and investment advisory services, designed to meet the financial needs of small- to mid-sized businesses and individuals throughout central New England. Specialty lending activities includingEngland and the Lower Hudson Valley in New York. The Banks and their subsidiaries lend primarily in all New England states and New York, with the exception of equipment financing, comprise 27.8%29% of which is in the greater New York and New Jersey metropolitan area.area and 71% of which is in other areas in the United States of America as of December 31, 2023. Clarendon Private is a registered investment advisor with the SEC. Through Clarendon Private, the Company offers a wide range of wealth management services to individuals, families, endowments and foundations to help these clients meet their long-term financial goals.

The Company focuses its business efforts on profitably growing its commercial lending businesses, both organically and through acquisitions. The Company’s customer focus, multi-bank structure, and risk management are integral to its organic growth strategy and serve to differentiate the Company from its competitors. As full-service financial institutions, the Banks and their subsidiaries focus their efforts on developing and deepening long-term banking relationships with qualified customers through a full complement of products and excellent customer service, and strong risk management.

The Company manages the Banks under uniform strategic objectives, with one set of uniform policies consistently applied by one executive management team. Within this environment, the Company believes that the ability to make customer decisions locally enhances management's motivation, service levels and, as a consequence, the Company's financial results. As such, while most back-office functions are consolidated at the holding company level, branding and decision-making, including credit decisions and pricing, remain largely local in order to better meet the needs of bank customers and further motivate the Banks’ commercial, business and retail bankers. These credit decisions, at the local level, are executed through corporate policies overseen by the Company's credit department.

The competition for loans and leases and deposits remains intense. The Company expects the operating environment to remain challenging. The volume of loan and lease originations and loan and lease losses will depend, to a large extent, on how the economy performs.strong. Loan and lease growth and deposit growth are also greatly influenced by the rate-setting actions of the FRB. A sustained, low interestBoard of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (the "FRB"). Based on management's scenario analysis of deposit sensitivity to the current rate environment with a flatand customer's demand for non-depository investment alternatives, management expects that there will be further deposit mix migration and increased deposit sensitivity to interest rate curve mayrates which will negatively impact the Company's yieldsnet interest income and net interest margin. While

Management expects pressure on the Companynet interest margin to continue for a quarter or two after the Federal Reserve stops increasing rates, after which the net interest margin is slightly asset sensitiveexpected to stabilize and should benefit from risingthen increase as loans continue to reprice into the higher rate environment faster than time deposits and other funding sources. Net interest income models, using a projected flat balance sheet with stable deposit balances and an average sensitivity of deposit rates of approximately 39% to market rates, forecast that a short-term increase in rates will positively affect the Company's net interest income, net interest spread, and net interest margin.

As discussed above, changes in interest rates could also precipitate a change in the mix and volume of the Company's deposits and loans. The future operating results of the Company will depend on its ability to maintain or increase the current net interest margin, while minimizing exposure toincome, manage credit risk, along with increasingincrease sources of non-interest income, while controlling the growth ofmanaging non-interest expenses.

Total assets of $8.9increased $2.2 billion, or 23.9%, to $11.4 billion as of December 31, 2020 increased $1.12023 from $9.2 billion or 13.8%, fromas of December 31, 2019.2022. The increase was primarily driven by increases in loans and leases, cashthe acquisition of PCSB.

Cash and cash equivalents and investment securities.decreased $249.9 million, or 65.3%, to $133.0 million as of December 31, 2023 from $383.0 million as of December 31, 2022.

Total loans and leases of $7.3increased $2.0 billion, or 26.1%, to $9.6 billion as of December 31, 2020 increased $531.7 million, or 7.9%,2023 from $7.6 billion as of December 31, 2019.2022. The Company's commercial loan portfolios, which are comprised of commercial real estate loans and commercial loans and leases, totaled $6.1$8.2 billion, or 83.9%84.7% of total loans and leases as of December 31, 2020,2023, an increase of $590.8 million,$1.7 billion, or 10.7%27.2%, from $5.5$6.4 billion, or 81.7%84.0% of total loans and leases, as of December 31, 2019.

Total deposits of $6.9increased $2.0 billion, or 31.1%, to $8.5 billion as of December 31, 2020 increased $1.1 billion, or 18.5%,2023 from $5.8$6.5 billion as of December 31, 2019.2022, primarily driven by the completion of the PCSB acquisition. Core deposits, which include demand checking, NOW, money market and savings accounts, totaled $4.8$6.1 billion, or 69.8%71.3% of total deposits as of December 31, 2020,2023, an increase of $1.0 billion, from $3.8$0.8 billion, or 65.3%15.3%, from $5.3 billion, or 81.0% of total deposits as of December 31, 2019.2022. Certificate of deposit balances totaled $1.4$1.6 billion, or 20.1%18.4% of total deposits as of December 31, 2020, a decrease2023, an increase of $281.7 million, or 16.9% on an annualized basis from $1.7$0.6 billion, or 28.7%69.7%, from $0.9 billion, or 14.2% of total deposits, as of December 31, 2019.2022. Brokered deposit balances totaled $693.9 million,$0.9 billion, or 10.0%10.3% of total deposits as of December 31, 2020,2023, an increase of $344.0 million,$0.6 billion, or 98.3% on an annualized basis184.1%, from $349.9 million,$0.3 billion, or 6.0%4.8% of total deposits, as of December 31, 2019.2022.

Nonperforming assets as of December 31, 20202023 totaled $45.0$45.3 million, or 0.50%0.40% of total assets, compared to $22.1$15.3 million, or 0.28%0.17% of total assets, as of December 31, 2019.2022. Net charge-offs for the year ended December 31, 20202023 were $13.0$19.7 million, or 0.18%0.21% of average loans and leases, compared to $7.2$3.3 million, or 0.11%0.05% of average loans and leases, for the year ended December 31, 2019.2022. The increase of $30.0 million in nonperforming assets was primarily driven by the inclusionincreases of one$19.0 million in nonperforming commercial relationship of $4.3real estate loans, $5.4 million one construction relationship of $3.9in nonperforming equipment financing loans, $3.4 million in nonperforming commercial loans, and one commercial relationship classified as OREO loan of $5.4$1.6 million in nonperforming residential loans during the year endingended December 31, 2020.2023.

The ratio of the allowance for loan and lease losses to total loans and leases was 1.57%1.22% as of December 31, 2020,2023, compared to 0.91%1.29% as of December 31, 2019. On January 1, 2020, the Company implemented the CECL methodology to calculate2022.

For the year ended December 31, 2020,2023, the Company reported net income of $47.6$75.0 million, or $0.60$0.85 per basic and diluted share, a decrease of $40.1$34.7 million, or 45.7%31.7%, from $87.7$109.7 million, or $1.10$1.42 per basic and diluted share for the year ended December 31, 2019.2022. The decrease in net income is primarily the result of an increase in non-interest expense of $60.0 million and an increase in the provision for credit losses of $52.3$29.3 million an increase in non-interest expensewhich includes $16.7 million attributable to the closing of $3.4 million and a decrease in non-interest income of $5.1 million,the PCSB Bank acquisition, partially offset by an increase in net interest income of $6.9$39.9 million, and a decrease in the provision for income taxes of $13.8$11.3 million, and an increase in non-interest income of $3.6 million.

The return on average assets was 0.55%0.67% for the year ended December 31, 2020,2023, compared to 1.15%1.27% for the year ended December 31, 2019.2022. The return on average stockholders' equity was 5.09%6.42% for the year ended December 31, 2020,2023, compared to 9.56%11.15% for the year ended December 31, 2019.2022.

The net interest margin was 3.17%3.24% for the year ended December 31, 20202023, down from 3.51%3.67% for the year ended December 31, 2019.2022. The decrease in the net interest margin is a result of a decreasean increase of 218 basis points in the Company's cost of funds to 3.00% in 2023 from 0.82% in 2022, partially offset by an increase in the yield on interest-earning assets of 82128 basis points to 3.99%5.50% in 20202023 from 4.81%4.22% in 2019, partially offset by a decrease2022.

Non-interest income decreased $5.1increased $3.6 million to $24.6$31.9 million for the year ended December 31, 20202023 from $29.8$28.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2019.2022. Several factors contributed to the year over year decrease,increase, including decreasesincreases of $4.0$3.6 million in loan level derivativeother non-interest income, $1.4 million in gain on sales of investment securities, net, $1.6and $0.7 million in deposit fees, $0.6partially offset by decreases of $1.6 million in gain on sales of loans and leases, and $0.4 million in other non-interestloan level derivative income, partially offset by an increase of $1.5net., and $0.2 million in gain on sales of investment securities, net.loan fees.

Non-interest expense increased $3.4$60.0 million to $160.8$239.5 million for the year ended December 31, 20202023 from $157.5$179.5 million for the year ended December 31, 2019.2022, primarily driven the completion of the PCSB acquisition. The increase was largely attributable to increases of $4.4$25.4 million in compensation and employee benefits expense, and $2.8$7.3 million in FDIC insurance expense, partially offset by decreasesamortization of $1.6 million in other

The accounting policies described below are considered critical to understanding the Company's financial condition and operating results. Such accounting policies are considered to be especially important because they involve a higher degree of complexity and require management to make difficult and subjective judgments which often require assumptions or estimates about matters that are inherently uncertain. The use of different judgments, assumptions and estimates could result in material differences in the Company's operating results or financial condition.

Management evaluates the adequacy of the allowance on a quarterly basis and reviews its conclusion as to the amount to be established with the Audit Committee and the Board of Directors.

As a result of the adoption of ASU 2016-13 effective January 1, 2020, the Company updated its critical accounting policy for the allowance for credit losses. The updates in this standard replace the incurred loss impairment GAAP methodology with the CECLCurrent Expected Credit Losses ("CECL") methodology. The CECL methodology incorporates current condition, and "reasonable and supportable" forecasts, as well as prepayments, to estimate credit losses over the life of the loan.

In addition to evaluating the Company’s results of operations in accordance with GAAP, management periodically supplements this evaluation with an analysis of certain non-GAAP financial measures, such as the operating earnings metrics, the return on average tangible assets, return on average tangible equity, the tangible stockholders' equity, tangible equity ratio, tangible book value per share and dividend payout ratio. Management believes that these non-GAAP financial measures provide information useful to investors in understanding the Company’s underlying operating performance and trends, and facilitates comparisons with the performance assessment of financial performance, including non-interest expense control, while the tangible equity ratio and tangible book value per share are used to analyze the relative strength of the Company’s capital position.

In light of diversity in presentation among financial institutions, theThe methodologies used by the Company for determining the non-GAAP financial measures discussed above may differ from those used by other financial institutions.

Operating earnings exclude the after-tax impact of securities gains, the day 1 CECL provision and merger and acquisition expense as well as the impact of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (the "Tax Act").expense. By excluding such items, the Company's results can be measured and assessed on a more consistent basis from period to period. Items excluded from operating earnings are also excluded when calculating the operating return and operating efficiency ratios.

The following table summarizes the Company's operating earnings and operating earnings per share ("EPS") for the periods indicated: