UNITED STATES SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K

(Mark One)

☒ANNUAL REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 20172018

or

☐TRANSITION REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the transition period from to

Commission file number 1-13397

INGREDION INCORPORATED

(Exact Name of Registrant as Specified in Its Charter)

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code (708) 551-2600

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: NONE

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act. Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or Section 15(d) of the Act. Yes ☐ No ☒

Note – Checking the box above will not relieve any registrant required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Exchange Act from their obligations under those Sections.

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrantregistrant has submitted electronically and posted on its corporate Web site, if any, every Interactive Data File required to be submitted and posted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrantregistrant was required to submit and post such files). Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. 

Indicate by check mark if disclosure of delinquent filers pursuant to Item 405 of Regulation S-K is not contained herein, and will not be contained, to the best of Registrant’s knowledge, in definitive proxy or information statements incorporated by reference in Part III of this Form 10-K or any amendment to this Form 10-K. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). Yes ☐ No ☒

The aggregate market value of the Registrant's voting stock held by non-affiliates of the Registrant (based upon the per share closing price of $119.21$110.70 on June 30, 2017,2018, and, for the purpose of this calculation only, the assumption that all of the Registrant's directors and executive officers are affiliates) was approximately $8,486,000,000.$7,812,000,000.

The number of shares outstanding of the Registrant's Common Stock, par value $0.01 per share, as of February 16, 2018,14, 2019, was 72,235,558.66,667,462.

Documents Incorporated by Reference:

Information required by Part III (Items 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14) of this document is incorporated by reference to certain portions of the Registrant’s definitive Proxy Statement (the “Proxy Statement”) to be distributed in connection with its 20182019 Annual Meeting of Stockholders which will be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission within 120 days after December 31, 2017.2018.

INGREDION INCORPORATED

FORM 10-K

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I.

ITEM 1. BUSINESS

The Company

Ingredion Incorporated (“Ingredion”) is a leading global ingredients solutions provider. We turn corn, tapioca, potatoes, grains, fruits, and vegetables into value-added ingredients and biomaterials for the food, beverage, paper and corrugating, brewing and other industries. Ingredion was incorporated as a Delaware corporation in 1997 and its common stock is traded on the New York Stock Exchange.Exchange under the ticker symbol “INGR”.

For purposes of this report, unless the context otherwise requires, all references herein to the “Company,” “Ingredion,” “we,” “us,” and “our” shall mean Ingredion Incorporated and its subsidiaries.

We are principally engaged in the production and sale of starches and sweeteners for a wide range of industries, and are managed geographically on a regional basis. Our operations are classified into four reportable business segments: North America, South America, Asia Pacific and Europe, Middle East, and Africa (“EMEA”). Our North America segment includes businesses in the U.S., Mexico, and Canada. Our South America segment includes businesses in Brazil, the Southern Cone of South America (which includes Argentina, Peru, Chile, and Uruguay), Colombia, and Ecuador. Our Asia Pacific segment includes businesses in South Korea, Thailand, China, Australia, Japan, New Zealand, Indonesia, Singapore, the Philippines, Malaysia, and India. Our EMEA segment includes businesses in Pakistan, Germany, the United Kingdom and South Africa, and Kenya.Africa.

On March 11, 2015, we completed our acquisition of Penford Corporation (“Penford”), a manufacturer of specialty starches that was headquartered in Centennial, Colorado. The acquisition of Penford provides us with, among other things, an expanded specialty ingredient product portfolio consisting of potato starch-based offerings.

On August 3, 2015, we completed our acquisition of Kerr Concentrates, Inc. (“Kerr”), a privately-held producer of natural fruit and vegetable concentrates. Kerr serves major food and beverage companies, flavor houses, and ingredient producers from its manufacturing locations in Oregon and California. The acquisition of Kerr provides us with the opportunity to expand our product portfolio.

On November 29, 2016, we completed our acquisition of Shandong Huanong Specialty Corn Development Co., Ltd. (“Shandong Huanong”) in China. The acquisition of Shandong Huanong, located in Shandong Province, adds a second manufacturing facility to our operations in China. It produces corn starch raw material for our plant in Shanghai, which makes value-added ingredients for the food industry. We expect this acquisition to enhance our capacity in the Asia Pacific segment with a vertically integrated manufacturing base for specialty ingredients.

On December 29, 2016, we completed our acquisition of TIC Gums Incorporated (“TIC Gums”), a privately held, U.S.-based company that provided advanced texture systems to the food and beverage industry. Consistent with our strategy for new platform growth, this acquisition enhances our texture capabilities and formulation expertise and provides additional opportunities for us to provide solutions for natural, organic, and clean-label demands of our customers. TIC Gums utilizes a variety of agriculturally derived ingredients, such as acacia gum and guar gum, to form the foundation for innovative texture systems and allow for clean-label reformulation. TIC Gums operates two production facilities, one in Belcamp, Maryland, and one in Guangzhou, China. TIC Gums also maintains a research and development (“R&D”) lab within these two production facilities.

On March 9, 2017, we completed our acquisition of Sun Flour Industry Co., Ltd. (“Sun Flour”) in Thailand. The acquisition of Sun Flour adds a fourth manufacturing facility to our operations in Thailand. Sun Flour produces rice-based ingredients used primarily in the food industry. This transaction enhances our global supply chain and leverages other capital investments that we have made in Thailand to grow our specialty ingredients and service customers around the world.

For purposes of this report, unless the context otherwise requires, all references herein to the “Company,” “Ingredion,” “we,” “us,” and “our” shall mean Ingredion Incorporated and its subsidiaries.

Our Asia Pacific segment manufactures corn-based products in South Korea, Australia,China, and China.Australia. Also, we manufacture tapioca-based products in Thailand, from which we supply not only our Asia Pacific segment but the rest of our global network. The region’s facilities include ten plants that produce modified, specialty, regular, waxy, tapioca and rice starches, dextrins, glucose, high maltose syrup, dextrose, high fructose corn syrup, and caramel color.

Our EMEA segment includes five plants that produce modified and specialty starches, glucose and dextrose in Pakistan, Germany, and the United Kingdom.

Additionally, we utilize a network of tolling manufacturers in various regions in the production cycle of certain specialty starches. In general, these tolling manufacturers produce certain basic starches for us, and we in turn complete the manufacturing process of the specialty starches through our finishing channels.

Sweetener Products: Our sweetener products represented approximately 37 percent, 37 percent, and 4036 percent of our net sales for 2018, and 37 percent our net sales for both 2017, 2016, and 2015, respectively.2016.  Sweeteners include products such as glucose syrups, high maltose syrup, high fructose corn syrup, dextrose, polyols, maltrodextrine,maltrodextrin, glucose syrup solids, and non-GMO syrups. Our sweeteners are used in a wide variety of food and beverage products, such as baked goods, snack foods, canned fruits, condiments, candy and other sweets, dairy products, ice cream, jams and jellies, prepared mixes, table syrups, soft drinks, fruit-flavored drinks, beer, and many others. These sweetener products also offer functionality in addition to sweetness, such as texture, body and viscosity; help control freezing points, crystallization, and browning; add humectancy (ability to add moisture) and flavor; and act as binders. Our high maltose syrups speed the fermentation process, allowing brewers to increase capacity without adding capital. Dextrose has a wide range of applications in the food and confection industries, in solutions for intravenous (“IV”) and other pharmaceutical applications, and numerous industrial applications like wallboard, biodegradable surface agents, and moisture control agents. Our specialty sweeteners provide affordable, natural, reduced calorie and sugar-free solutions for our customers.

Co-products and others: Co-products and others accounted for approximately 19 percent 17 percent,of our net sales for both 2018 and 162017, and 17 percent of our net sales for 2017, 2016, and 2015, respectively.2016. Refined corn oil (from germ) is sold to packers of cooking oil and to producers of margarine, salad dressings, shortening, mayonnaise, and other foods. Corn gluten feed is sold as animal feed. Corn gluten meal is sold as high-protein feed for chickens, pet food, and aquaculture. Our other products include fruit and vegetable products, such as concentrates, purees, and essences, as well as pulse proteins and hydrocolloids systems and blends.

Specialty Ingredients within the product portfolio: We consider certain of our products to be specialty ingredients. Specialty ingredients comprised approximately 2829 percent of our net sales for 2017,2018, up from 28 percent and 26 percent in 2017 and 25 percent in 2016, and 2015, respectively. These ingredients deliver more functionality than our other products and add additional customer value. Our specialty ingredients are aligned with growing market and consumer trends such as health and wellness, clean-label, simple ingredients, affordability, indulgence, and sustainability.

We plan to drive growth for our specialty ingredients portfolio by leveraging the following five growth platforms: Wholesome, Texture, Nutrition, Sweetness, and Beauty and Home.

Wholesome: Clean and simple specialty ingredients that consumers can identify and trust. Products include Novation clean label functional starches, value-added pulse-based ingredients, and gluten free offerings.

Each growth platform addresses multiple consumer trends. To demonstrate how we are positioned to address market trends and customer needs, we present our internal growth platforms externally as “Benefit Platforms.” Connecting our capabilities to key trends and customer challenges, these Benefit Platforms include products designed to provide:

Affordability: reduce formulating and production costs without compromising quality or consumer experience

Clean & Simple: replace undesirable ingredients and simplify ingredient labels to give consumers the clean, simple, and authentic products they want

Health & Nutrition: enhance nutrition benefits by fortifying or eliminating ingredients to address broad consumer health and wellness needs globally with specific solutions for all ages

Sensory Experience: deliver a fresh, distinctive, multi-sensory experience in the dimensions of texture, sweetness, and taste for food, beverage, and personal care products

Convenience & Performance: help create products for today’s on-the-go lifestyles and that meet user expectations the first time and every time, from start to finish

At the Consumer Analyst Group of New York Conference on February 19, 2019, we announced a reorganization of our specialty growth platforms.   We will be shifting our focus for value creation within our specialty products portfolio into the following five new growth platforms: Starch-based Texturizers, Clean and Simple Ingredients, Plant-based proteins, Sugar Reduction and Specialty Sweeteners, and Food Systems.  In addition to these five new growth platforms, we produce other specialty products primarily serving the industrial sector.

Competition

The starch and sweetener industry is highly competitive. Many of our products are viewed as basic ingredients that compete with virtually identical products and derivatives manufactured by other companies in the industry. The U.S. is a highly competitive market where there are other starch processors, several of which are divisions of larger enterprises. Some of these competitors, unlike us, have vertically integrated their starch processing and other operations. Competitors include ADM Corn Processing Division (“ADM,” a division of Archer-Daniels-Midland Company), Cargill, Inc. (“Cargill”), Tate & Lyle Ingredients Americas, Inc. (“Tate & Lyle”), and several others. Our operations in Mexico and Canada face competition from U.S. imports and local producers including ALMEX, a Mexican joint venture between ADM and Tate & Lyle. In South America, Cargill has starch processing operations in Brazil and Argentina. We also face competition from Roquette Frères S.A. (“Roquette”) primarily in our North America region.

Many smaller local corn and tapioca refiners also operate in many of our markets. Competition within our markets is largely based on price, quality, and product availability.

Several of our products also compete with products made from raw materials other than corn. High fructose corn syrup and monohydrate dextrose compete principally with cane and beet sugar products. Co-products such as corn oil and gluten meal compete with products of the corn dry milling industry and with soybean oil, soybean meal, and other products. Fluctuations in prices of these competing products may affect prices of, and profits derived from, our products.

Customers

We supply a broad range of customers in over 60 industries worldwide. The following table provides the approximate percentage of total net sales by industry for each of our segments for 2017:industries served in 2018:

Other raw materials used in our manufacturing processes include starch from potato processors as the primary raw material to manufacture ingredients derived from potato-based starches. In addition, we use tapioca, particularly in certain of our production processes in the Asia Pacific region. While the price of tapioca fluctuates from time-to-time as a result of growing conditions, the supply of tapioca has been, and is anticipated to continue to be, adequate for our production needs in the various markets in which we operate. In addition to corn, potato, and tapioca, we use pulses, gum, rice, and sugar as raw materials, among others.

Research and Development

We have a global network of more than 350400 scientists working in 2728 Ingredion Idea Labs® innovation centers with headquarters in Bridgewater, New Jersey. Activities at Bridgewater include plant science and physical, chemical and biochemical modifications to food formulations, food sensory evaluation, and development of non-food applications such as starch-based biopolymers. In addition, we have product application technology centers that direct our product development teams worldwide to create product application solutions to better serve the ingredient needs of our customers. Product development activity is focused on developing product applications for identified customer and market needs. Through this approach, we have developed value-added products for use by customers in various industries. We usually collaborate with customers to develop the desired product application either in the customers’ facilities, our technical service laboratories, or on a contract basis. These efforts are supported by our marketing, product technology, and technology support staff. R&D expense was approximately $46 million in 2018, $43 million in 2017, and $41 million in 2016, and $43 million in 2015.2016.

Sales and Distribution

Our salaried sales personnel, who are generally dedicated to customers in a geographic region, sell our products directly to manufacturers and distributors. In addition, we have staff that provide technical support to our sales personnel on an industry basis. We generally contract with trucking companies to deliver our bulk products to customer destinations. In North America, we generally use trucks to ship to nearby customers. For those customers located considerable distances from our plants, we use either rail or a combination of railcars and trucks to deliver our products. We generally lease railcars for terms of three to ten years.

Patents, Trademarks, and Technical License Agreements

We own more than 850750 patents and patents pending, which relate to a variety of products and processes, and a number of established trademarks under which we market our products. We also have the right to use other patents and trademarks pursuant to patent and trademark licenses. We do not believe that any individual patent or trademark is material to our business. There is no currently pending challenge to the use or registration of any of our patents or trademarks that would have a material adverse impact on us or our results of operations if decided against us.

Employees

As of December 31, 2017,2018, we had approximately 11,000 employees, of which approximately 2,600 were located in the U.S. Approximately 3132 percent of U.S. and 37 percent of our non-U.S. employees are unionized.

Government Regulation and Environmental Matters

As a manufacturer and marketer of food items and items for use in the pharmaceutical industry, our operations and the use of many of our products are subject to various federal, state, foreign and local statutes and regulations, including the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act and the Occupational Safety and Health Act. We and many of our products are also subject to regulation by various government agencies, including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Among other things, applicable regulations prescribe requirements and establish standards for product quality, purity, and labeling. Failure to comply with one or more regulatory requirements can result in a variety of sanctions, including monetary fines. No such fines of a material nature were imposed on us in 2017.2018. We may also be required to comply with federal, state, foreign, and local laws regulating food handling and storage. We believe these laws and regulations have not negatively affected our competitive position.

Our operations are also subject to various federal, state, foreign, and local laws and regulations with respect to environmental matters, including air and water quality, and underground fuel storage tanks, and other regulations intended to protect public health and the environment. We operate industrial boilers that fire natural gas, coal, or biofuels to operate our manufacturing facilities and they, along with product dryers, are our primary source of greenhouse gas emissions. In Argentina, we are in discussions with local regulators associated with conducting studies of possible environmental remediation programs at our Chacabuco plant. We are unable to predict the outcome of these discussions; however, we do not believe that the ultimate cost of remediation will be material. Based on current laws and regulations and the enforcement and interpretations thereof, we do not expect that the costs of future environmental compliance will be a material expense, although there can be no assurance that we will remain in compliance or that the costs of remaining in compliance will not have a material adverse effect on our future financial condition and results of operations.

During 2017,2018, we spent approximately $16$12 million for environmental control and wastewater treatment equipment to be incorporated into existing facilities and in planned construction projects. We currently anticipate that we will invest approximately $12$10 million and $9$13 million for environmental facilities and programs in 20182019 and 2019,2020, respectively.

Other

Our Internet address is www.ingredion.com. We make available, free of charge through our Internet website, our annual report on Form 10-K, quarterly reports on Form 10-Q, current reports on Form 8-K, and amendments to those reports filed or furnished pursuant to Section 13(a) or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended. These reports are made available as soon as reasonably practicable after they are electronically filed with or furnished to the Securities and Exchange Commission. Our corporate governance guidelines, board committee charters and code of ethics are posted on our website, the address of which is www.ingredion.com, and each is available in print to any shareholder upon request in writing to Ingredion Incorporated, 5 Westbrook Corporate Center, Westchester, Illinois 60154 Attention: Corporate Secretary. The contents of our website are not incorporated by reference into this report.

Executive Officers of the Registrant

Set forth below are the names and ages of all of our executive officers, indicating their positions and offices with the Company and other business experience. Our executive officers are elected annually by the Board to serve until the next annual election of officers and until their respective successors have been elected and have qualified, unless removed by the Board.

ITEM 1A. RISK FACTORS

Our business and assets are subject to varying degrees of risk and uncertainty. The following are factors that we believe could cause our actual results to differ materially from expected and historical results. Additional risks that are currently unknown to us may also impair our business or adversely affect our financial condition or results of operations. In addition, forward-looking statements within the meaning of the federal securities laws that are contained in this Form 10-K or in our other filings or statements may be subject to the risks described below as well as other risks and uncertainties. Please read the cautionary notice regarding forward-looking statements in Item 7 below.

Changes in consumer preferences and perceptions may lessen the demand for our products, which could reduce our sales and profitability and harm our business.

Food products are often affected by changes in consumer tastes, national, regional and local economic conditions and demographic trends. For instance, changes in prevailing health or dietary preferences causing consumers to avoid food products containing sweetener products, including high fructose corn syrup, in favor of foods that are perceived as being more healthy, could reduce our sales and profitability, and such reductions could be material. Increasing concern among consumers, public health professionals and government agencies about the potential health concerns associated with obesity and inactive lifestyles (reflected, for instance, in taxes designed to combat obesity, which have been imposed recently in North America) represent a significant challenge to some of our customers, including those engaged in the food and soft drink industries.

Current economic conditions may adversely impact demand for our products, reduce access to credit and cause our customers and others with whom we do business to suffer financial hardship, all of which could adversely impact our business, results of operations, financial condition, and cash flows.

Economic conditions in South America, the European Union, and many other countries and regions in which we do business have experienced various levels of weakness over the last few years, and may remain challenging for the foreseeable future. General business and economic conditions that could affect us include barriers to trade (USMCA negotiation, Brexit, border taxes, etc.), the strength of the economies in which we operate, unemployment, inflation, and fluctuations in debt markets. While currently these conditions have not impaired our ability to access credit markets and finance our operations, there can be no assurance that there will not be a further deterioration in the financial markets.

There could be a number of other effects from these economic developments on our business, including reduced consumer demand for products, pressure to extend our customers’ payment terms, insolvency of our customers resulting in increased provisions for credit losses, decreased customer demand, including order delays or cancellations, and counterparty failures negatively impacting our operations.

In connection with our defined benefit pension plans, adverse changes in investment returns earned on pension assets and discount rates used to calculate pension and related liabilities or changes in required pension funding levels may have an unfavorable impact on future pension expenseexpenses and cash flow.flows.

In addition, the volatile worldwide economic conditions and market instability may make it difficult for us, our customers, and our suppliers to accurately forecast future product demand trends, which could cause us to produce excess products that could increase our inventory carrying costs. Alternatively, this forecasting difficulty could cause a shortage of products that could result in an inability to satisfy demand for our products.

Our reliance on certain industries for a significant portion of our sales could have a material adverse effect on our business.

Approximately 53 percent of our 20172018 sales were made to companies engaged in the food industry and approximately 1211 percent were made to companies in the beverage industry. Additionally, sales to the animal nutrition and paper and corrugating industries eachbrewing industry represented approximately 10 percent of our 2017 net sales. Net sales to the brewing industry representedand approximately 7 percent, respectively, of our 20172018 net sales. If our food customers, beverage customers,

The uncertainty of acceptance of products developed through biotechnology could affect our profitability.

The commercial success of agricultural products developed through biotechnology, including genetically modified corn, depends in part on public acceptance of their development, cultivation, distribution and consumption. Public attitudes can be influenced by claims that genetically modified products are unsafe for consumption or that they pose unknown risks to the environment, even if such claims are not based on scientific studies. These public attitudes can influence regulatory and legislative decisions about biotechnology. The sale of our products, which may contain genetically modified corn, could be delayed or impaired because of adverse public perception regarding the safety of our products and the potential effects of these products on animals, human health, the environment, and the environment.animals.

Our future growth could be negatively impacted if we fail to introduce sufficient new products and services.

While we do not believe that any individual patent or trademark is material to our business, a portion of our growth comes from innovation in products, processes, and services. We cannot guarantee that our research and development efforts will result in new products and services at a rate or of a quality sufficient to meet expectations.

We operate in a highly competitive environment and it may be difficult to preserve operating margins and maintain market share.

We operate in a highly competitive environment. Many of our products compete with virtually identical or similar products manufactured by other companies in the starch and sweetener industry. In the U.S., there are competitors, several of which are divisions of larger enterprises that have greater financial resources than we do. Some of these competitors, unlike us, have vertically integrated their corn refining and other operations. Many of our products also compete with products made from raw materials other than corn, including cane and beet sugar. Fluctuation in prices of these competing products may affect prices of, and profits derived from, our products. In addition, government programs supporting sugar prices indirectly impact the price of corn sweeteners, especially high fructose corn syrup. Competition in markets in which we compete is largely based on price, quality and product availability.

Due to market volatility, we cannot assure that we can adequately pass potential increases in the cost of corn and other raw materials on to customers through product price increases or purchase quantities of corn and other raw materials at prices sufficient to sustain or increase our profitability.

The price and availability of corn and other raw materials is influenced by economic and industry conditions, including supply and demand factors such as crop disease and severe weather conditions, such as drought, floods, or frost, that are difficult to anticipate and which we cannot control.

Raw material and energy price fluctuations, and supply interruptions and shortages could adversely affect our results of operations.

Our finished products are made primarily from corn. Purchased corn and other raw material costs account for between 40 percent and 65 percent of finished product costs. Some of our products are based upon specific varieties of corn that are produced in significantly less volumes than yellow dent corn. These specialty grains are higher-cost due to their more limited supply and require planning cycles of up to three years in order for us to receive our desired amountamounts of specialty corn. We also manufacture certain starch-based products from potatoes. Our current potato starch requirements constitute a material portion of the total available North American supply. It is possible that, in the long term, continued growth in demand for potato starch-based ingredients and new product development could result in capacity constraints. Also, we utilize tapioca in the manufacturing of starch products primarily in Thailand, as well as pulses, gum, rice and other raw materials around the world. A significant supply disruption or sharp increase in any of these raw material prices that we are unable to recover through pricing increases to our customers could have an adverse impact on our growth and profitability.

Energy costs represent approximately 1011 percent of our finished product costs. We use energy primarily to create steam inrequired for our production processes and to dry products. We consume coal, natural gas, electricity, wood, and fuel oil to generate energy. In Pakistan, the overall economy has been slowed by severe energy shortages which both negatively impact our ability to produce sweeteners and starches, and also negatively impact the demand from our customers due to their inability to produce their end products because of the shortage of reliable energy.

The market prices for our raw materials may vary considerably depending on supply and demand, world economies, trade agreements and tariffs, and other factors. We purchase these commodities based on our anticipated usage and future outlook for these costs. We cannot assure that we will be able to purchase these commodities at prices that we can adequately pass on to customers to sustain or increase profitability.

In North America, we sell a large portion of our finished products derived from corn at firm prices established in supply contracts typically lasting for periods of up to one year. In order to minimize the effect of volatility in the cost of corn related to these firm-priced supply contracts, we enter into corn futures and options contracts, or take other hedging positions in the corn futures market. Additionally, we produce and sell ethanol and enter into swap contracts to hedge price risk associated with fluctuations in market prices of ethanol. We are unable to directly hedge price risk related to co-product sales; however, we occasionally enter into hedges of soybean oil (a competing product to our animal feed and corn oil) in order to mitigate the price risk of animal feed and corn oil sales. These derivative contracts typically mature within one year. At expiration, we settle the derivative contracts at a net amount equal to the difference between the then-current price of the commodity (corn, soybean oil, or ethanol) and the derivative contract price. These hedging instruments are subject to fluctuations in value; however, changes in the value of the underlying exposures we are hedging generally offset such fluctuations. The fluctuations in the fair value of these hedging instruments may affect our cash flow. We fund any unrealized losses or receive cash for any unrealized gains on futures contracts on a daily basis. While the corn futures contracts or hedging positions are intended to minimize the effect of volatility of corn costs on operating profits, the hedging activity can result in losses, some of which may be material. Outside of North America, sales of finished products under long-term, firm-priced supply contracts are not material. We also use over-the-counter natural gas swaps to hedge portions of our natural gas costs, primarily in our North America operations.

An inability to contain costs could adversely affect our future profitability and growth.

Our future profitability and growth depends on our ability to contain operating costs and per unit product costs and to maintain and implement effective cost control programs, while at the same time maintaining competitive pricing and superior quality products, customer service, and support. Our ability to maintain a competitive cost structure depends on continued containment of manufacturing, delivery, freight, and administrative costs, as well as the implementation of cost-effective purchasing programs for raw materials, energy, and related manufacturing requirements.

If we are unable to contain our operating costs and maintain the productivity and reliability of our production facilities, our profitability and growth could be adversely affected.

Increased interest rates could increase our borrowing costs.

We may issue securities to finance acquisitions, capital expenditures, and working capital, or for other general corporate purposes. An increase in interest rates in the general economy could result in an increase in our borrowing costs for these financings, as well as under any existing debt that bears interest at an unhedged floating rate.

Future costs of environmental compliance may be material.

Our business could be affected in the future by national and global regulation or taxation of greenhouse gas emissions. Inemissions, as well as the U.S.,potential effects of climate change.  Changes in precipitation extremes, droughts and water availability have the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (“EPA”) has adopted regulations requiringpotential to impact Ingredion's agricultural supply as well as the owners and operatorsavailability of certain facilities to measure and report their greenhouse gas emission. The EPA has also begun to regulate greenhouse gas emissions from certain stationary and mobile sources under the Clean Air Act. For example, the EPA has proposed rules regarding the construction and operation of coal-fired boilers. California and Ontario are also moving forward with various programs to reduce greenhouse gases.water for our manufacturing operations. Globally, a number of countries that are parties to the Kyoto Protocol have instituted or are considering climate change legislation and regulations. Most notable isIngredion continues to assess the European Union

Company for long-term, profitable growth in a number of local, regional, and global market environments, while balancing potential risk, which is mitigated by the Company's ability to move production or growth projects to other sites within the company’s portfolio.

We may not successfully identify and complete acquisitions or strategic alliances on favorable terms or achieve anticipated synergies relating to any acquisitions or alliances, and such acquisitions could result in unforeseen operating difficulties and expenditures and require significant management resources.

We regularly review potential acquisitions of complementary businesses, technologies, services, or products, as well as potential strategic alliances. We may be unable to find suitable acquisition candidates or appropriate partners with which to form partnerships or strategic alliances. Even if we identify appropriate acquisition or alliance candidates, we may be unable to complete such acquisitions or alliances on favorable terms, if at all. In addition, the process of integrating an acquired business, technology, service, or product into our existing business and operations may result in unforeseen operating difficulties and expenditures. Integration of an acquired company also may require significant management resources that otherwise would be available for ongoing development of our business. Moreover, we may not realize the anticipated benefits of any acquisition or strategic alliance, and such transactions may not generate anticipated financial results. Future acquisitions could also require us to issue equity securities, incur debt, assume contingent liabilities, or amortize expenses related to intangible assets, any of which could harm our business.

Operating difficulties at our manufacturing plants could adversely affect our operating results.

Producing starches and sweeteners through corn refining is a capital intensive industry. We have 44 plants and have preventive maintenance and de-bottlenecking programs designed to maintain and improve grind capacity and facility reliability. If we encounter operating difficulties at a plant for an extended period of time or start-up problems with any capital improvement projects, we may not be able to meet a portion of sales order commitments and could incur significantly higher operating expenses, both of which could adversely affect our operating results. We also use boilers to generate steam required in our manufacturingproduction processes. An event that impaired the operation of a boiler for an extended period of time could have a significant adverse effect on the operations of any plant in which such event occurred.

Also, we are subject to risks related to such matters as product safety and quality; compliance with environmental, health and safety and food safety regulations; and customer product liability claims. The liabilities that could result from these risks may not always be covered by, or could exceed the limits of, our insurance coverage related to product liability and food safety matters. In addition, negative publicity caused by product liability and food safety matters may damage our reputation. The occurrence of any of the matters described above could adversely affect our revenues and operating results.

We operate a multinational business subject to the economic, political, and other risks inherent in operating in foreign countries and with foreign currencies.

We have operated in foreign countries and with foreign currencies for many years. Our results are subject to foreign currency exchange fluctuations. Our operations are subject to political, economic, and other risks. There has been and continues to be significant political uncertainty in some countries in which we operate. Economic changes, terrorist activity, and political unrest may result in business interruption or decreased demand for our products. Protectionist trade measures and import and export licensing requirements could also adversely affect our results of operations. Our success will depend in part on our ability to manage continued global political and economic uncertainty.

We primarily sell products derived from world commodities. Historically, we have been able to adjust local prices relatively quickly to offset the effect of local currency devaluations, although we cannot guarantee our ability to do this in the future. For example, due to pricing controls on many consumer products imposed in the recent past by the Argentine government, it takes longer than it had previously taken to achieve pricing improvement in response to currency devaluations in that country. The anticipated strength in the U.S. dollar may continue to provide some challenges, as it could take an extended period of time to fully recapture the impact of foreign currency devaluations, particularly in South America.

We may hedge transactions that are denominated in a currency other than the currency of the operating unit entering into the underlying transaction. We are subject to the risks normally attendant to such hedging activities.

Our information technology systems, processes, and sites may suffer interruptions, security breaches, or failures which may affect our ability to conduct our business.

Our operations rely on certain key information technology systems, which are dependent on services provided by third parties, provide critical data connectivity, information, and services for internal and external users. These interactions include, but are not limited to: ordering and managing materials from suppliers, risk management activities, converting raw materials to finished products, inventory management, shipping products to customers, processing transactions, summarizing and reporting results of operations, human resources benefits and payroll management, complying with regulatory, legal orand tax requirements, and other processes necessary to manage our business. Increased information technology security and social engineering threats and more sophisticated computer crime, including advanced persistent threats, pose potential risks to the security of our information technology systems, networks and services, as well as the confidentiality, availability and integrity of our third-party and employee data.  We have put in place security measures to protect ourselves against cyber-based attacks and disaster recovery plans for our critical systems. However, if our information technology systems are breached, damaged, or cease to function properly due to any number of causes, such as catastrophic events, power outages, security breaches, or cyber-based attacks, and our disaster recovery plans do not effectively mitigate the risks on a timely basis, we may encounter significant disruptions that could interrupt our ability to manage our operations, cause loss of valuable data and actual or threatened legal actions, and cause us to suffer damage to our reputation, all of which may adversely impact our revenues, operating results, and financial condition.

Our profitability could be negatively impacted if we fail to maintain satisfactory labor relations.

Approximately 3132 percent of our U.S. and 37 percent of our non-U.S. employees are members of unions. Strikes, lockouts, or other work stoppages or slowdowns involving our unionized employees could have a material adverse effect on us.

Natural disasters, war, acts and threats of terrorism, pandemics, and other significant events could negatively impact our business.

If the economies of any countries in which we sell or manufacture products or purchase raw materials are affected by natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, or severe weather; war, acts of war, or terrorism; or the outbreak of a pandemic; it could result in asset write-offs, decreased sales and overall reduced cash flows.

Government policies and regulations could adversely affect our operating results.

Our operating results could be affected by changes in trade, monetary and fiscal policies, laws and regulations, and other activities of the U.S. and foreign governments, agencies, and similar organizations. These conditions include but are not limited to changes in a country’s or region’s economic or political conditions, modification or termination of trade agreements or treaties promoting free trade, creation of new trade agreements or treaties, trade regulations affecting production, pricing and marketing of products, local labor conditions and regulations, reduced protection of intellectual property rights, changes in the regulatory or legal environment, restrictions on currency exchange activities, currency exchange rate fluctuations, burdensome taxes and tariffs, and other trade barriers. International risks and uncertainties, including changing social and economic conditions as well as terrorism, political hostilities, and war, could limit our ability to transact business in these markets and could adversely affect our revenues and operating results.

Due to cross-border disputes, our operations could be adversely affected by actions taken by the governments of countries in which we conduct business.

The recognition of impairment charges on goodwill or long-lived assets could adversely impact our future financial position and results of operations.

We have $1.3 billion of total intangible assets at December 31, 2017,2018, consisting of $803$791 million of goodwill and $493$460 million of other intangible assets. Additionally, we have $2.4$2.3 billion of long-lived assets at December 31, 2017.2018.

We perform an annual impairment assessment for goodwill and our indefinite-lived intangible assets, and as necessary, for other long-lived assets. If the results of such assessments were to show that the fair value of these assets

impact our competitiveness and, therefore, our results of operations. Our working capital requirements, including margin requirements on open positions on futures exchanges, are directly affected by the price of corn and other agricultural commodities, which may fluctuate significantly and change quickly.

Volatility in the stock market, fluctuations in quarterly operating results, and other factors could adversely affect the market price of our common stock.

The market price for our common stock may be significantly affected by factors such as our announcement of new products or services or such announcements by our competitors; technological innovation by us, our competitors or other vendors; quarterly variations in our operating results or the operating results of our competitors; general conditions in our or our customers’ markets; and changes in the earnings estimates by analysts or reported results that vary materially from such estimates. In addition, the stock market has experienced significant price fluctuations that have affected the market prices of equity securities of many companies that have been unrelated to the operating performance of any individual company.

No assurance can be given that we will continue to pay dividends.

The payment of dividends is at the discretion of our Board of Directors and will be subject to our financial results and the availability of statutory surplus funds to pay dividends.

Our profitability may be affected by other factors beyond our control.

Our operating income and ability to increase profitability depend to a large extent upon our ability to price finished products at a level that will cover manufacturing and raw material costs and provide an acceptable profit margin. Our ability to maintain appropriate price levels is determined by a number of factors largely beyond our control, such as aggregate industry supply and market demand, which may vary from time to time, and the economic conditions of the geographic regions in which we conduct our operations.

ITEM 1B. UNRESOLVED STAFF COMMENTS

None

ITEM 2. PROPERTIES

We own or lease (as noted below), directly and through our consolidated subsidiaries, 44 manufacturing facilities. In addition, we lease our corporate headquarters in Westchester, Illinois and our research and development facility in Bridgewater, New Jersey.

The following list details the locations of our manufacturing facilities within each of our four reportable business segments:

We believe our manufacturing facilities are sufficient to meet our current production needs. We have preventive maintenance and de-bottlenecking programs designed to further improve grind capacity and facility reliability.

We have electricity co-generation facilities at our plants in London, Ontario, Canada; Cardinal, Ontario, Canada; Stockton, California, U.S.; Bedford Park, Illinois, U.S.; Winston-Salem, North Carolina, U.S.; San Juan del Rio and Mexico City, Mexico; Cali, Colombia; Cornwala, Pakistan; and Balsa Nova and Mogi-Guacu, Brazil, that provide electricity at a lower cost than is available from third parties. We generally own and operate these co-generation facilities, except for the facilities at our Mexico City, Mexico; and Balsa Nova and Mogi-Guacu, Brazil locations, which are owned by, and operated pursuant to co-generation agreements with third parties.

In recent years, we have made significant capital expenditures to update, expand and improve our facilities, spending $314$350 million in 2017.2018. We believe these capital expenditures will allow us to operate efficient facilities for the foreseeable future. We currently anticipate that capital expenditures and mechanical stores purchases for 20182019 will approximate $330 to $360 million.

ITEM 3. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS

We are a party to a large number of labor claims relating to our Brazilian operations. As of December 31, 2017, we have reserved an aggregate of approximately $5 million with respect to these claims. These labor claims primarily relate to dismissals, severance, health and safety, work schedules, and salary adjustments.

We are currently subject to various other claims and suits arising in the ordinary course of business, including labor matters, certain environmental proceedings, and other commercial claims.  We also routinely receive inquiries from regulators and other government authorities relating to various aspects of our business, including with respect to compliance with laws and regulations relating to the environment, and at any given time, we have matters at various stages of resolution with the applicable governmental authorities. The outcomes of these matters are not within our complete control and may not be known for prolonged periods of time. We do not believe that the results of currently known legal proceedings and inquires even if unfavorable to us, will be material to us. There can be no assurance, however, that such claims, suits or investigations or those arising in the future, whether taken individually or in the aggregate, will not have a material adverse effect on our financial condition or results of operations.

ITEM 4. MINE SAFETY DISCLOSURES

Not applicable.

PART II

ITEM 5. MARKET FOR REGISTRANT’S COMMON EQUITY, RELATED STOCKHOLDER MATTERS AND ISSUER PURCHASES OF EQUITY SECURITIES

Shares of our common stock are traded on the New York Stock Exchange (“NYSE”) under the ticker symbol “INGR.” The number of holders of record of our common stock was 4,1603,911 at January 31, 2018.2019.

We have a history of paying quarterly dividends. The amount and timing of the dividend payment, if any, is based on a number of factors including estimated earnings, financial position and cash flow. The payment of a dividend is solely at the discretion of our Board of Directors. Future dividend payments will be subject to our financial results and the availability of funds and statutory surplus to pay dividends.

The quarterly high and low market prices for our common stock and cash dividends declared per common share for 2016 and 2017 are shown below.

Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities:

The following table summarizes information with respect to our purchases of our common stock during the fourth quarter of 2017.2018.

On December 12, 2014, the Board of Directors authorized a new stock repurchase program permitting us to purchase up to 55.0 million of our outstanding common shares from January 1, 2015, through December 31, 2019. On October 22, 2018, the Board of Directors authorized a new stock repurchase program permitting the Company to purchase up to an additional 8.0 million of its outstanding common shares from November 5, 2018 through December 31, 2023.At December 31, 2017,2018, we have 3.75.9 million shares available for repurchase under the stock repurchase program.programs.

On November 5, 2018, the Company entered into a Variable Timing Accelerated Share Repurchase (“ASR”) program with JPMorgan (“JPM”).  Under the ASR program, the Company paid $455 million on November 5, 2018 and acquired 4.0 million shares of its common stock having an approximate value of $423 million on that date. At the end of the program, the Company and JPM will settle any difference between the initial price and average daily volume-weighted average price (“VWAP”) less the agreed upon discount during the term of the agreement. On February 5, 2019 the Company was notified that JPM finalized the ASR with a resulting VWAP of $98.04, which was less than initially paid.  The Company elected to settle the difference in cash, resulting in JPM returning $63 million of the upfront payment to the Company on February 6, 2019 and lowering the total cost of repurchasing the 4.0 million shares of common stock to $392 million.  

ITEM 6. SELECTED FINANCIAL DATA

Selected financial data is provided below.

ITEM 7. MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

Overview

We are a major supplier of high-quality food and industrial ingredient solutions to customers around the world. We have 44 manufacturing plants located in North America, South America, Asia Pacific and Europe, the Middle East and Africa (“EMEA”), and we manage and operate our businesses at a regional level. We believe this approach provides us with a unique understanding of the cultures and product requirements in each of the geographic markets in which we operate, bringing added value to our customers. Our ingredients are used by customers in the food, beverage, brewing, and animal feed paper and corrugating, and brewing industries, among others.

Our growth strategy is centered on delivering value-added ingredient solutions for our customers. The foundation of our strategy is operating excellence, which includes our focus on safety, quality and continuous improvement. We see growth opportunities in three areas: first, we are working to expand our current business through organic growth; second, we are focused on broadening our ingredient portfolio with on-trend products through internal and external business development; finally, we look for growth from geographic expansion as we pursue extension of our reach to new locations. The ultimate goal of these strategies and actions is to deliver increased shareholder value.

Critical success factors in our business include managing our significant manufacturing costs, including costs for corn, other raw materials, and utilities. In addition, due to our global operations we are exposed to fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates. We use derivative financial instruments, when appropriate, for the purpose of minimizing the risks and costs associated with fluctuations in certain raw material and energy costs, foreign exchange rates, and interest rates. Also, the capital intensive nature of our business requires that we generate significant cash flow over time in order to selectively reinvest in our operations and grow organically, as well as through strategic acquisitions and alliances. We utilize certain key financial metrics relating to return on capital employed and financial leverage to monitor our progress toward achieving our strategic business objectives (see section entitled “Key Financial Performance Metrics”).

We had a solid year in 2017 asThe financial results of 2018 for operating income, net income and diluted earnings per common share grewdeclined from 2016. Our earnings growth was driven principally by continued strong2017.  Operating income declined in 2018 from 2017 primarily due to lower operating results in our North America segment. Operating income also grew in our EMEA and Asia Pacific segments, which waspartially offset by lower earningsoperating income growth in our South America segment due to continued difficult macroeconomic conditions and increasedEMEA.  Lower sweetener demand, commodity margin pressures, higher production and supply chain costs in Argentina.North America, higher raw material costs in Asia-Pacific, and unfavorable currency translation were the main drivers of the operating income decline.     

In July 2018, we announced a $125 million savings target for our Cost Smart program, designed to improve profitability, further streamline our global business, and deliver increased value to shareholders. We set forth Cost Smart savings targets to include an anticipated $75 million in cost of sales savings, including freight, and $50 million in anticipated SG&A savings by year-end 2021. Additionally, the Board of Directors authorized the cessation of wet-milling at the Stockton, California plant and the establishment of a shipping distribution station at that facility, as part of the Cost Smart cost of sales program. 

Our Cost Smart program and other initiatives resulted in restructuring charges in 2018.  During the first quarteryear ended December 31, 2018, we recorded $64 million of 2017, we implemented an organizationalpre-tax restructuring effort in Argentina to achieve a more competitive cost position in the region, which resulted in a strike by the labor union and an interruption of manufacturing activities during the second quarter of 2017. We finalized a new labor agreement with the labor union in the second quarter, ending the strike on June 1, 2017.charges.  We recorded total pre-tax$49 million of restructuring expenses as part of the Cost Smart cost of sales program in relation to the cessation of wet-milling at the Stockton, California plan, including $34 million for accelerated depreciation, $8 million for mechanical stores write downs, $4 million for other restructuring costs, and $3 million for employee-related severance.  In addition, we recorded $11 million of restructuring charges related to the Cost Smart SG&A program, including $7 million of employee-related severance and other costs for restructuring projects in Argentinathe South America, APAC, and North America segments and $4 million of $17costs related to the Latin America finance transformation initiative.  Finally, $4 million of restructuring charges related to other projects were recorded, including $3 million of costs related to the North America finance transformation and $1 million of costs related to the prior year abandonment of certain assets of our leaf extraction process in Brazil. 

Our cash provided by operating activities decreased to $703 million for the year ended December 31, 2017, related to the workforce reduction.

During the second quarter of 2017, we announced a Finance Transformation initiative in North America for the U.S. and Canada businesses to strengthen organizational capabilities and drive efficiencies to support our growth strategy. For the year ended December 31, 2017, we recorded pre-tax restructuring charges of $6 million ($3 million of severance costs and $3 million of other costs) related to this initiative. We expect to incur between $1 million and $2 million of additional employee-related severance and other costs in 2018.  

During the fourth quarter of 2017, we recorded $13 million of pre-tax restructuring charges related to our leaf extraction process in Brazil.  The charges consisted of $6 million of abandonment of certain assets, $6 million of inventory write downs and $1 million related to other costs, including employee-related severance costs. We expect to incur $1 million of additional other costs in 2018. Additionally, we reached an insurance settlement in North America for $9 million primarily related to capital reconstruction.

Our cash provided by operating activities remained relatively flat at2018, from $769 million for the year ended December 31, 2017, compared to $771 million in the prior year. The increase in current year earnings over the prior year were offset by an increase of cash outflow in working capital primarily due to the outflow in accounts payable and accruedlower current year net earnings.  Our cash used for financing activities

liabilities for the $63 million payment made to the Internal Revenue Service (“IRS”) in the third quarter of 2017 to complete the double taxation settlement between the U.S. and Canada. Our cash used for financing activities increased during the year ended December 31, 2017,2018, primarily due to the repurchase of approximately one5.8 million shares of our outstanding common stock in open market transactions for $123of which 4.0 million during the first quarter of 2017. During the second and third quarters, we also refinanced a total of $500 million of senior notes with borrowings under our revolving credit facility and a new term loan entered into during the third quarter. 

On March 9, 2017, we completed our acquisition of Sun Flour Industry Co., Ltd. (“Sun Flour”) in Thailand for $18 million. As of December 31, 2017, we paid $16 million in cash and recorded $2 million in accrued liabilities for the final deferred payment due to the previous owner. The acquisition of Sun Flour adds a fourth manufacturing facility to our operations in Thailand. Sun Flour produces rice-based ingredients used primarilyshares were repurchased in the food industry. This transaction enhances our global supply chain and leverages other capital investments that we have made in Thailandfourth quarter pursuant to grow our specialty ingredients and service customers around the world. The acquisition did not have a material impact on our financial condition, results of operations or cash flows in 2017.Variable Timing Accelerated Share Repurchase (“ASR”) program.    

Looking ahead, we anticipate that our operating income and net income will growremain flat to slightly favorable in 20182019 compared to 2017.2018, with the first half unfavorable due to higher anticipated corn costs and unfavorable currency translation relative to 2018.  In North America, we expect operating income to increase driven by improved product mixremain flat with the first half lower due to current market values of corn and margins occurring in the latter half of the year offset by higher operating costs in Mexico.lower co-product values.   In South America, we expect operating income to improve over the prior year driven by sales volume recovery and favorable price mix. We intend to continue to maintain a high degree of focus on cost and network optimization during 2018 as we manage through the improving macroeconomic environment in this segmentgrowth.  We expect modest operating income growth in Asia Pacific duringweighted toward the latter half of the year given anticipated high tapioca costs.higher raw material costs and unfavorable foreign exchange in the first half of the year. We also expect modest operating income growth in EMEA in 2018.2019 weighted toward the latter half of the year given unfavorable foreign exchange and higher raw material costs.

We currently expect that our available cash balances, future cash flow from operations, access to debt markets, and borrowing capacity under our credit facilities will provide us with sufficient liquidity to fund our anticipated capital expenditures, dividends, and other investing and financing activities for the foreseeable future.

Results of Operations

We have significant operations in four reporting segments: North America, South America, Asia Pacific and EMEA. For most of our foreign subsidiaries, the local foreign currency is the functional currency. Accordingly, revenues and expenses denominated in the functional currencies of these subsidiaries are translated into U.S. dollars at the applicable average exchange rates for the period. Fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates affect the U.S. dollar amounts of our foreign subsidiaries’ revenues and expenses.  In the second quarter of 2018, the Argentine peso rapidly devalued relative to the U.S. dollar, which along with increased inflation, resulted in a three-year cumulative inflation in that country exceeded 100 percent as of June 30, 2018.  As a result, the Company adopted highly inflationary accounting as of July 1, 2018 for its Argentina affiliate in accordance with U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (“GAAP”).�� Under highly inflationary accounting, Argentina’s functional currency becomes the U.S. dollar, and its income statement and balance sheet will be measured in U.S. dollars using both current and historical rates of exchange.  The effect of changes in exchange rates on Argentine peso-denominated monetary assets and liabilities will be reflected in earnings in financing costs.  The impact of all foreign currency exchange rate changes, where significant, is provided below.

We acquired Penford Corporation (“Penford”), Kerr Concentrates, Inc. (“Kerr”), Shandong Huanong Specialty Corn Development Co., Ltd. (“Shandong Huanong”), TIC Gums Incorporated (“TIC Gums”) and Sun Flour Industry Co., Ltd. (“Sun Flour”) on March 11, 2015, August 3, 2015, November 29, 2016, December 29, 2016, and March 9, 2017, respectively. The results of the acquired businesses are included in our consolidated financial results from the respective acquisition dates forward. While we identify fluctuations due to the acquisitions, our discussion below also addresses results of operations absent the impact of the acquisitions and the results of the acquired businesses, where appropriate, to provide a more comparable and meaningful analysis.

2018 Compared to 2017 – Consolidated

Net Income attributable to Ingredion. Net income attributable to Ingredion for 2018 decreased to $443 million from $519 million in 2017. Our results for 2018 included $54 million of one-time net after-tax costs, driven primarily by after-tax restructuring costs of $51 million. The restructuring charges consist of costs associated with our Cost Smart cost of sales program in relation to the cessation of wet-milling at the Stockton, California plant, costs related to the Cost Smart SG&A program, including employee-related severance and other costs for restructuring projects in the South America, Asia Pacific, and North America segments, costs related to the Latin America and North America Finance Transformation initiatives, and costs related to the cessation of our leaf extraction process in Brazil (see Note 5 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information).  During the year ended December 31, 2018, we adjusted our provisional amounts related enactment of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act ("TCJA") and recognized an incremental $3 million of tax expense related to the TCJA.

Our results for 2017 included $47 million of one-time net after-tax costs, driven primarily by restructuring costs of $31 million. The restructuring charges consisted of costs associated with the restructuring in Argentina, charges related to the abandonment of certain assets related to our leaf extraction process in Brazil, costs associated with the Finance Transformation initiative, and other pre-tax restructuring charges including employee-related severance costs in North America and a refinement of estimates for prior year restructuring activities (see Note 5 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information). Our net after-tax results also included a net $23 million charge to the provision for income taxes related to the enactment of the TCJA in December 2017, a $6 million charge relating to the flow-through of costs primarily associated with the sale of TIC Gums inventory that was adjusted to fair value at the acquisition date in accordance with business combination accounting rules, and a $3 million charge associated with the integration of acquired operations, partially offset by a tax benefit of $10 million due to a deductible foreign exchange loss resulting from the tax settlement between the U.S. and Canada and a $6 million gain from an insurance settlement primarily related to capital reconstruction.

Net sales. Net sales remained relatively flat for the year ended December 31, 2018 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017. Volume growth of 1 percent driven by specialty products and favorable price/product mix of 2 percent were offset by unfavorable currency translation of 3 percent.

Cost of sales.  Cost of sales for 2018 increased 3 percent to $4.5 billion from $4.4 billion in 2017 primarily due to higher raw material and manufacturing expenses.  Our gross profit margin was 23 percent and 25 percent the years ended December 31, 2018, and 2017, respectively.   The gross profit margin decrease primarily reflects higher raw material costs and manufacturing expenses. 

Operating expenses. Our decrease in operating expenses of 1% for the year ended December 31, 2018, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017 was primarily driven by lower general administrative costs, partially offset by higher selling and research and development expenses.  Operating expenses, as a percentage of gross profit, were 45 percent for the year ended December 31, 2018, as compared to 42 percent for the year ended December 31, 2017.

Other income, net. Our change in other income, net for the year ended December 31, 2018, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017, was as follows:

Financing costs, net. Our financing costs, net for the year ended December 31, 2018 increased $13 million from the year ended December 31, 2017, primarily driven by unfavorable currency translation, including the impact of highly inflationary accounting related to Argentina.  

Provision for income taxes.  Our effective income tax rates for the years ended December 31, 2018 and 2017 were 26.9 percent and 30.8 percent, respectively.

The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (“TCJA”) was enacted on December 22, 2017. The TCJA introduced numerous changes in the U.S. federal tax laws. Changes that have a significant impact on our effective tax rate are a reduction in the U.S. corporate tax rate from 35 percent to 21 percent, the imposition of a U.S. tax on our global intangible low-taxed income (“GILTI”) and the foreign-derived intangible income (“FDII”) deduction. The TCJA also provided for a one-time transition tax on the deemed repatriation of cumulative foreign earnings as of December 31, 2017, and eliminated the tax on dividends from our foreign subsidiaries by allowing a 100-percent dividends received deduction.

On December 22, 2017, Staff Accounting Bulletin No. 118 (“SAB 118”) was issued to provide guidance on the application of GAAP to situations in which the registrant does not have all the necessary information available, prepared or analyzed (including computations) in sufficient detail to complete the accounting for the income tax effects of the TCJA.

In the fourth quarter of 2017, we calculated a provisional impact of the TCJA in accordance with SAB 118 and our understanding of the TCJA, including published guidance as of December 31, 2017.  During the third and fourth quarter of 2018, we recorded $2 million and $1 million, respectively, of net incremental tax expense as we finalized our TCJA expense based on additional guidance from federal and state regulatory agencies.  (See Note 9 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information.) The following table summarizes the provisional and final net tax expense impact of the TCJA:

Additionally, we had been pursuing relief from double taxation under the U.S.-Canada tax treaty for the years 2004 through 2013. In the third quarter of 2017, the two countries finalized the agreement, which eliminated the double taxation, and we paid $63 million to the U.S. Internal Revenue Service to settle the liability. As a result of that agreement, we were entitled to a net tax benefit of $10 million primarily due to a foreign exchange loss deduction on our 2017 U.S. federal income tax return, or 1.3 percentage points on the effective tax rate.   As a result of the final settlement, we received refunds totaling $42 million from Canadian revenue agencies and recorded $2 million, or 0.3 percentage points on the effective tax rate, of interest through tax expense in 2018.  

We use the U.S. dollar as the functional currency for our subsidiaries in Mexico.   In 2017, a decline in value of the Mexican peso versus the U.S. dollar increased tax expense by $4 million or 0.5 percentage points on the effective tax rate. This impact was largely associated with foreign currency translation gains and losses for local tax purposes on net-U.S.-dollar-monetary assets held in Mexico for which there was no corresponding gain or loss in pre-tax income.

During 2018, we increased the valuation allowance on the net deferred tax assets in Argentina by $6 million, or 1.0 percentage points on the effective tax rate, compared to $16 million, or 2.0 percentage points on the effective tax rate in 2017.

Without the impact of the items described above, our effective tax rate would have been approximately 25.1 percent and 28.1 percent for 2018 and 2017, respectively.  The remaining year-over-year decrease in the effective income tax rate is primarily attributable to the impact of U.S. tax reform.

Net income attributable to non-controlling interests. Net income attributable to non-controlling interests for the year ended December 31, 2018, decreased $2 million from the year ended December 31, 2017, primarily due to unfavorable currency translation at our non-wholly-owned operation in Pakistan

2018 Compared to 2017 – North America

Net sales. Our decrease in net sales of 1 percent for the year ended December 31, 2018, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017, was driven by a 1 percent decrease in price/product mix due to higher freight costs.  Volume growth for specialty and Mexico was primarily offset by volume declines for sweeteners in U.S./Canada.

Operating income.  Our decrease in operating income of $109 million for the year ended December 31, 2018, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017, was driven by higher production and supply chain costs, lower U.S./Canada sweetener demand, and commodity margin pressures.

2018 Compared to 2017 – South America

Net sales.  Our decrease in net sales of 6 percent for the year ended December 31, 2018, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017, was driven by currency devaluations of 19% in Argentina and Brazil partly offset by a 13% increase in price/product mix from price increases used to offset higher raw material costs and foreign currency fluctuations.

Operating income.  Our increase in operating income of $18 million for the year ended December 31, 2018, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017, was primarily driven by improved operational efficiencies and the lapping of the 2017 Argentina manufacturing optimization project, partially offset by unfavorable currency translation reflecting a weaker Brazilian real and Argentine peso.

2018 Compared to 2017 – Asia Pacific

Net sales.  Our increase in net sales of 9 percent for the year ended December 31, 2018, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017, was driven by volume growth of 3 percent, favorable currency translation of 3 percent, and a 3 percent increase in price/product mix due to favorable pricing to offset higher tapioca costs.   

Operating income. Our decrease in operating income of $11 million for the year ended December 31, 2018, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017, was driven by a delay in the pass through of higher tapioca costs, partially offset by specialty volume growth.  

2018 Compared to 2017 – EMEA

Net sales.  Our increase in net sales of 5 percent for the year ended December 31, 2018, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017, was driven by volume growth of 6 percent, a 3 percent increase in price/product mix, partially offset by unfavorable currency translation of 4 percent.   

Operating income. Our increase in operating income of $2 million for the year ended December 31, 2018, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017, was driven by specialty and core volume growth and improved price/product mix, partly offset by unfavorable currency translation in Pakistan and higher raw material costs.

2017 Compared to 2016 – Consolidated